Research proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Research proposal - Essay Example the companies, government organizations, and individuals are able to follow all the legislative requirements regarding the creation and governance of pensions1. This paper analyzes the extent in which the costs of pension are able to affect the value of a company. This research mainly concerns itself with companies operating in the United Kingdom. It is important to understand that this area of pensions is an area that has been greatly researched, not only pensions in relation to the government employees, but also pensions in relation to private companies. Most researchers aim at finding out the benefits of this pension schemes, and the role they play in the economy (Gustman, Steinmeier, and Tabatabai, 2014). Researchers are motivated by the fact that pensions are useful in helping the aged people to have the capability of satisfying their basic needs. Another reason as to why there is considerable interest in this area of pensions is based on the desire by the UK government to decrease the old age poverty in the country. The government has noted that one of the most efficient methods of reducing old age poverty is restructuring the pension system in the United Kingdom2. This new measures must have the capability of addressing new and emerging needs. On this basis, research on the pension systems is developed to address these needs, and provide a framework for policy formulators to develop a policy that would help the citizens of UK fight old age poverty (Mullen, 2010). Pension is defined as an amount of money, paid on a regular basis for purposes of preparing the payee for retirement. Pensions are a very useful welfare programs, and this is because they normally help the aged to meet their daily needs. However, the pension system has always been accused of failing to remove the aged from poverty, since the amount given is always small, when comparable to the standards of living (Gustman, Steinmeier, and Tabatabai, 2014). This is mainly specific to retired

Qatar Foreign Policy Towards the Middle East Essay Example for Free

Qatar Foreign Policy Towards the Middle East Essay Qatar is located in Arabian Peninsula in boarders with Saudi Arabia, with only 225,000 citizens in a population of 1. 7 million. Qatar follows a conservative religious ideology, Wahhabism. While some refer to Qatar as the â€Å" Second Wahhabi Emirate,† it is traditionally known as â€Å"the most boring place in the gulf† or â€Å"the country known for being unknown (Roberts, 2012). † However, Qatar emerged as a strong state actor with extended networks of alliances in the world. The mediator role that Doha plays today is crucial in the region, particularly after the Arab Spring (HRW, 2013). Indeed, Qatar supported the Arab Uprisings across the region in 2011. In addition, Qatar invested between $65 billion and $100 billion to the FIFA world cup that it will be hosting in 2022. The Emir founded a number of humanitarian projects in Sudan, South of Lebanon, Gaza and Asia. In this paper, I attempt to answer the question of what are the driving motives of Qatar’s foreign policy in the Middle East? And why, unlike its neighboring countries, Qatar’s leadership supported the Arab appraisals of 2011? Emir of Qatar, Sheikh Hamad Al Thani, stated, â€Å"we support those who demanded justice and dignity,† when asked about his country’s role in the Arab revolutions in an interview in 60 Minutes . In response, President Barak Obama thanked the Emir for promoting democracy in the Middle East (Al Thani, 2012). Ironically, Qatar is an absolute monarchy described as an â€Å" authoritarian regime† that is ranked 138th out of the 167 countries by Democracy Index 2011. In addition, the Freedom House lists Qatar as â€Å" not free† (freedom house), (Democracy Index, 2011). Therefore, Qatar’s lack of rule of law, freedom of speech and political rights contradict â€Å"the Emir’s efforts to promote democracy† and delegitimizes his political statements. In relevance to this hypocrisy, Qatar’s foreign policy in general and its support of democratic transitions in the Arab region in specific serves its ambitions to secure itself from threats, maintain its status quo of an independent state and take a leadership role in the region. Political Emancipation and the Saudi Threat: Al Thani family ruled Qatar for more than 150 years. Qatar attained its independence in 1971, when the British-mandate came to an end and after its refusal to join the United Arab Emirates federation. Since that date until the 1990s, Saudi Arabia acted as the de facto protector of Qatar. Consequently, the Emir took policy directions from Al Saud. However, this relationship witnessed a change in the early 1990s as tensions in bilateral relations between the two countries began to arise. After the invasion of Kuwait and Sadam’s threat to attack the Suadi kingdom, Saudi quickly reached out to western coalitions in aim of protection. As Suadi presented itself as weak and unable to defend itself, the Qataris began to doubt Saudi’s ability to protect the Qatari entity and decided to pursue a strong alliance with the US. Therefore, between 1990-1992, Qatar signed a military agreement with the United States to host its military base in Al-Odead. In response, Saudi worked to block Qatar’s pipeline exports of gas to United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Oman. As a result, tensions between the two countries intensified. Later, in 30 September 1992, Saudi attacked the Qatari boarders leaving three soldiers dead (2012). However, the clashes did not stop there. In1995, Shiekh Hamad Al Thani, the Crown Prince back then, seized power after a bloodless coup d’etat against his father. Of course, Saudi Arabia did not welcome the coup d’etat because of Hamad’s known strong motives to maintain his country’s autonomy. Instead, Saudi financially supported another coup against the current Emir. Then, Qatar detained a number of Saudi and Qatari citizens who cooperated with the Saudi government to bring the ousted prince back into power. These tensions led the Saudi-Qatar relations into a deep freeze until rapprochement happened in 2008 (2012). Since then, Shiekh Hamad Al Thani led the modernization process to create a brand name of Qatar. In its foreign policy, Qatar adopted diplomacy as a foreign policy tool that allows it to take on the mediator role in a number of regional disputes. In addition to its diplomatic activism and small size, the Qatari wealth that is invested in mediation efforts paves the way for Qatar to be a head in the political game today. A Theoretical approach on Qatar’s Mediation: The tribal nature of the Qatari society and the hierarchal system of the government lends the leadership absolute power to form the country’s economic-political agenda and foreign policy. The major two agents that determine the political strategies of Qatar’s foreign policy are its national security and its desire to establish a brand name for itself. Hence, the main key element of Qatar’s foreign policy is mediation, which is apparently is not a new political tool as the â€Å"early Al-Thanis were forced to become experts negotiators quickly in anarchic corner of the Middle East (Roberts). According to Jacob Bercovitch in his book, Studies in International Mediation, countries engage in mediation for various reasons that include â€Å"(a) a genuine desire to change the course of a long-standing conflict to promote peace, (b) a desire to gain access to major political leaders and open channels of communication, (c), a desire to spread one’s ideas and enhance standing and professional status, (d) the wish to preserve intact structure of which they are part, (e) viewing mediation as a way of extending and enhancing their own influence and gaining some value from the conflict (Roberts). Therefore, from this perspective, Qatar’s employs mediation for the enhancement of its professional status and the acquirement of power. From here, Qatar mediated a number of disputes in the region including the Hezbollah dispute with the Lebanese government, the rebellion disputes with the Northern Sudanese government and the Huothis dispute with the Yemeni government. Moreover, Participation in mediations between states is of great advantage to Qatar. Internationally, it promotes a peaceful image as a peacekeeping state in an attempt to gain worldwide respect (Roberts). Peterson argues in his work, Qatar and the World, â€Å"The fundamental advantage, however, is that it assures the legitimacy of the micro state. This in turn leads to the single most important factor: increased awareness of and legitimacy accruing to Qatar- in domestic and external terms- enhances the prospects of the states’ survival†(Roberts). Qatar neutral position and its small size makes non-threatening to other state to except negotiation with compare to Saudi which has interests in regional conflict, which leads political parties to refuse its negotiation, e. . Saudi support of the government in Yemen and rivalry with Hezbollah. On the other hand, Qatar established diplomatic relations with almost everyone. Qatar’s Foreign affairs minister, Shiekh Hamad bin Jasem Al Thani, in an interview on Al –Jazeera, was asked by Ahmed Manosur, Al Jazeera presenter, â€Å"I just want to understand one thing! In Qatar you have relations with the devils and the angels, with the Iranians and the Americans, with the Israelis and Hamas, he continued, how can we understand this policy? (Mansour, 2012). Today, Qatar unlike other state in the region, calls Tehran in the morning and Tel Aviv in the afternoon â€Å"(Roberts). It was the first state in the gulf to host trade office of Israel, established good relations with Hamas, opened communications with Hezbollah, the Emir of Qatar was the first to invite Ahmadinejad to attend the 28th Gulf Cooperation council summit in 2007. While other Arab states alienated Islamists, Qatar was in good terms with Arab oppositions, particularly Islamic groups. For example, Yusuf Al Qaradawi is an influential Islamic leader, resident of Qatar since 1960s is the main guest who taken the Qatari citizenship is Al Jazeera chief religious show. Also, other Arab political dissidents were welcomed and took Qatari citizenship such as Mohammed Hamed Al Hamari from Saudi Arabia who organized Youth Role in Change in the Arabic Gulf; young activists from across the gulf attended the conference (Al Qassemi, 2012). Al Jazeera as foreign Policy tool Part of â€Å"Brand Qatar† project, is to spread ideas and enhance Qatar’s status. The establishment of Al-Jazeera in 1996 came to serve that goal. Al Jazeera is an important tool of Qatar foreign policy, with its slogan the â€Å" The Opinion and the other Opinion† and the channel shameless criticisms to Arab leaders and programs on democracy and political rights. Al Jazeera soon gained the respect of Arab public compare to other media alternatives that are state sponsored (Khtib, 2013). The channel broadcasted the revolutions across the Arab spring countries – except the appraisals in Bahrain . The spread of revolutions were feared by Arab states, yet Qatar seemed to support the revolutions through Al Jazeera. That is said to be reason that inspired the youth in Egypt, Libya, Syria and Yemen to rebel against their governments and demand freedom and dignity. Nevertheless, The channel neutrality was under question, during the Egyptian elections, Al Jazeera hosted members of MB like Khirat Al Shater, and Moahhmed Mosri. Sultan Al Qassimi, a, wrote about Al Jazeera’s Arabic love ffaires with MB, he discussed some of his observations, that Muslim Brotherhood supports were given the chance to express their views on through the channel while critics towards Muslim Brotherhood were barely heard in the channel (Al Qassemi, 2012). Recently, Waddah Khanfar the director – general of Al Jazeera was replaced with Shiekh Ahmed bin Jasem Al Thani, who holds degree in petroleum (Al Qassemi, 2012). This suggests that Al Jazeea is becoming less free to represents Qatar’s government preferences and its support to Muslim brotherhood. Apparently, Qatar calculations towards the Arab spring were opposite to its neighbors who supported Mubarak regime. It saw an opportunity to ally itself with revolutions to promote for its image as â€Å"Pro- Arab public † and play regional role in Arab-Arab relations despite the policy risks its taking incase these revolutions were not successful. Through Qatar’s Money, Al-Jazeera, regional mediations and international pressure, Doha was successful in making the Arab Spring an opportunity so that it plays valuable role and take a leadership role in the region. Qatar in the Arab Spring: Qatar natural position had to be changed when it realized that change will topple the former leaders to stay at the head of the game head of Saudi, After Mubarak’s fall, Qatar supported Muslim brotherhood in Egypt. Shiekh Hamad Al Thani, the foreign minster of Qatar state that his country won’t allow Egypt to go bankrupt, Doha transferred five billion dollars to Egypt to meet its financial obligations. In addition to the financial support, Al Jazeera members’ Muslim brotherhoods are regularly interviewed to spread their influence. Middle Ease Scholar, Alain Gresh calls Al Jazeera the mouthpiece of Muslim brotherhood (Khatib, 2013). Furthermore, Rashid Al Ghanushi of Al Nahdha party of Tunisia, stated in an interview with Al Arab newspaper that Qatar is a major partner of the Arab spring revolutions hence it’s also a partner in next period of democratic transition and development since it offers development projects to support the economy of the Arab spring states (2012). Qatar had to intervene in Libya and Syria to sustain its leading regional position. It was the first country to lead the international action against Gaddafi. Qatar supplied the rebels with total US$2billion. On the other hand, Qatar involved in arming Syrian rebels like the Free Syrian Army. Also, it was successful in unifying the Syrian opposition. The importance of Qatar involvement in the latter is to counter Iranian influence by allying with opposition while Assad regime is backed by Iran (Khatib, 2013). In contrast to this, Al Jazeera was silent towards the uprisings in Bahrian. Qatar has been selective in backing uprisings there. The reason behind that, is Saudi Arabia influence that views the situation as â€Å"Shi’a uprising â€Å" and regional rivalry with Iran, hence any intervention from Qatar’s side in Bahraini issue would result tensions (Roberts, 2012). In conclusion, Qatar had different view towards the Arab Spring compare to its neighbors. Its objective to play a valuable role in the region, made Doha change its position as neutral state and take foreign policy risks. Although the question of weather Qatar made the right policy decisions or not remains unanswered yet. However, Doha succeeded in playing regional role a head of regional power like Saudi and influenced the Arab countries to take collective action towards Libya and Syria. In addition, Qatar foreign policy faces challenges; among these challenges is the reliance on money donations to support Post Arab Spring countries that would hinder progress in Qatari diplomacy. On the other hand, the lack of democracy and rule of law domestically puts Qatar legitimacy to promote for democracy under question. Moreover, making policy changes internally such as guarantee of political and civil rights to citizens hold parliamentary elections and protection freedom of speech will give Qatar legitimacy and enhance its image in international community.

Health and Wellness int the Workplace :: essays research papers

Health and Wellness in the Workplace   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If the health of employees can help or hinder a company, then why do companies still have sick days? With the â€Å"on the go† lifestyles, how can we not question the health of employees and their families. Today we have high stress jobs, rush hour traffic, and demanding schedules. Being healthy and fit is the way to conquer tomorrow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We, as people in the workforce, are depended on to follow through with work commitments. A healthy employee is able to do more and feel well enough to enjoy it. We strive to do our best but how can we when we have low morale at the office. Healthy employees directly impact the bottom-line of all companies, from the sole proprietorship to the large corporation (1996). Keeping health-care costs low, boosting morale, increasing productivity, and reducing the absent rate is a payoff that every good business owner should recognize. When a small business is trying to become larger, having employees who are healthy and stress free is important. Losing a member of an already small number due to being ill is not the way to succeed. Working in an environment that is happy and productive is the perfect place to work, regardless of what the job is. With the health care costs reaching high number there is no wonder we have a large number of absenteeism. So many wait to the last possible painstaking work day to decide to see a doctor about their aliment, and all of that could be prevented. Preventing oneself to have to take time off from work is one way to keep costs low. There are so many areas that need to be addressed when it comes to what is going to slow us down as a company. According to estimates by Dr. Jaime Claudio(1991), a corporate wellness consultant for Health Plus, a provider of health-care insurance, a comprehensive eating awareness and weight- management program designed to improve long-term habits could generate an 80% reduction in the incidence of potential problems caused by obesity in the workplace. These problems include hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, and diminished work efficiency. Obesity is not the only eating disorder that is a problem, there is bulimia and anorexia. Smoking, drinking, su bstance abuse, and stress are problems that are brought into the workplace and stop productivity. We have to be aware of issues that are there but are not usually thought of as an illness.

His Excellency George Washington

His Excellency George Washington His Excellency George Washington, written by Joseph J. Ellis, provides us a look at one of the most influential men in American history. However, instead of looking at the monumental titan as most did, Ellis wrote about the man behind the monument; his successes, failures and desires that few if any have written about before.While not as formal sounding to the reader with many questions and out of the way comments by the author based on opinion instead of fact, like on page 194 where in moment about Washington saying formal etiquette of the levees combined with Washington's natural dignity (or was it his aloofness? ) to create†¦. ‘ with the content in the parentheses being his own. This statement of his was neither followed up by any fact nor further discussion entirely which is necessary in these situations. Or is it?Ellis spent his book not focusing on the monolith but on the man, dating back to before the French and Indian war where Wash ington started to receive recognition for his services, to his death in 1799. Ellis looked past all the brass and silver of his success in the public and thoroughly explored his private and personal life. Ellis painted Washington as a man who focused intently on his bottom line, as seen on page 165 where Ellis describes that the main reason for Washington wanting to get rid of his slaves was not for moral reasons but for economic reasons, as the slaves were no longer worth the investment.Ellis harped on the fact that only 3 letters of correspondence survived between George and Martha Washington (page 42), which was one of the few times e released his emotions considering his natural stone exterior. Ellis also put considerable effort in to focusing on his home in Mount Vernon which was a centerpiece in Washington's life. His life was changed forever by his wife Martha who, even though they originally married for economic reasons, became a ‘mutually affectionate bond' (Ellis, 42 ). From the beginning Washington was concerned about his future in the aristocratic- like planter class of Virginia.Being the 2nd son in the family George was not slated to receive his father's fortune, so he would need to find another career where he could aka one. He got his first Job as a surveyor sent to check on land in the Shenandoah Valley (Ellis, 10). It is presumed by Ellis that this is the point at which Washington saw the expansive and untouched land to the west, a driving force behind his ambitions both at the start of the revolution (Ellis, 57) and during his presidency. During his youth, America was a land where most identified themselves as British, Virginian ‘army and worked alongside the British intently during the French and Indian war.However many of the colonists believed they fought the French and Indian war to be allowed to expand west. This thought was extinguished when the proclamation of 1763 was released, forbidding colonist expansion westward. This w as one of the starting points where colonists began to feel some resentment to the British Crown, and only snowballed with every act thereafter. As more taxes and acts were being placed on colonists more and more anger about a lack or representation in parliament began to seep into American politics.Many of the more radical members who wanted full separation/retaliation became to be known as the Whig arty (Ellis, 62). These Whig were inspired by the Country Party (Ellis, 62-63) of England and wanted to establish a republican like government that better represented the colonists in the Americas. As time went on and the revolution ended, while the framing of the constitution took place and there on after, 2 political parties in the United States began to take route. The first major group was the Federalists led by Alexander Hamilton which Washington was a supporter of.The Federalists are precursors to modern day republicans. On the other hand a large group of people in the south didn' t like the centralist ideas of the Federalists, fearing that the Federalists would destroy their agriculturally based economies (Ellis, 204-205). These men went on to form the Republican Party, or Anti-Federalists, which is the modern precursor to the Democratic Party. While a member of it Washington hated and despised these 2 parties as he feared it would lead to a deadlock (which we can see today). Many decisions that would affect Americas social future were decided in Washington's era.A large one, the legality of slaves was one that was with him from the time of the revolution where he considered offering freedom for those who fought for him, until he finally passed away (Ellis, 263). While personally against slavery from a moral stand point later in his life at the beginning he took advantage of slave labor to help create his massive estates that were pivotal to his position in Virginia society. He did have 1 condition however that most slave owners didn't have; he would never s ell members of a slave family, only the whole family together (Ellis, 258).Joseph J. Ellis created a biography that changed some perspective of Washington. No longer an immovable figure of greatness, he was portrayed as a man who went through hardships, strife, and success, while still keeping his goals and ideals alive. He was a man with a deep capacity for emotion who had learned self-control and was always looking towards the future. He saw George as a man who would do what it took to get the Job done, and extend his legacy forever. Most importantly, Ellis shed new light on the man and not the monolith of His Excellency George Washington.

Alice Walker Outling

Alex Teague Language Arts outline 5-2-07 3rd period Alice Walker Outline I. Alice Walker was not only one of the most superior African American writers over the century, but also an activist in the civil rights movement, growing up in the time period where African Americans were just beginning to experience equality. In addition to her work about race, she wrote about the poor treatment that black women faced, and was often criticized for her portrayal of the black man being the bad guy. The color purple is one of her most profound books, involving racial discrimination and same-sex relationships.A lot of her novels and stories are based on her childhood experiences. II. Difficulties growing up A. She was the youngest of eight kids to parents that were sharecroppers. (source # 2) B. At the age of eight, he brother scarred and blinded her right eye with a bb gun, in a game of cowboys and Indians. C. She was constantly teased by classmates and no one in her family understood her, so sh e became shy and reclusive. (source #2) D. She was a southern black girl, growing up in a rural community, during a time when blacks had no rights. source # 3) E. Walker’s state of mind identified in the following quote, shows her perspective on her life thus far; â€Å"Black women are called, in the folklore that so aptly identifies one’s status in society, the ‘mule of the world,’ because we have been handed the burdens that everyone else –everyone else- refused to carry. † (source # 1) F. In the winter of 1965 she wrestled with suicide after deciding to have an abortion, and some of her poems recount the despair and isolation she felt at the time. (source # 1) III. Educational background A. he attended a segregated high school in Eatonton, Georgia, and she had inspiring teachers. ( source # 3) B. She first attended Spelman on a state scholarship. – During these two years she became active in the civil rights movements. (source # 2) C. After Spelman, she transferred to Sarah Lawrence College in New York. – spent her junior year in Africa as an exchange student. (source # 3) D. She has taught African American women studies to college students at Wellesley, the university of Massachusetts at Boston, Yale, Brandeis, and the university of California at Berkeley. source # 2) E. She served as a writer-in-residence for Jackson State College, now called Jackson State University, and Tougaloo College. (source #2) Civil Rights involvement A. She was invited to Martin Luther King’s home in recognition of her attendance at the youth world peace festival in Finland. (source # 2) B. She also registered black voters in Liberty County, Georgia. (source # 2) C. She worked for the New York City department of welfare. (source # 2) D. She married a white civil rights attorney. (source # 2) E.In Jackson, Mississippi she was a black history consultant for a Head Start Program. (source # 4) F. She is also an advocate fo r women’s rights. – she performed protest against the oppressive rituals of female circumcision in Africa and the Middle East. (source # 2) G. she participated in various demonstrations started but other civil rights activist. (source # 3) IV. Greatest Accomplishments A. ‘The Color Purple’ was published in 1982, and made into a motion picture in 1994. B. ‘You Can’t keep A Good Woman Down’ was published in march 1981. C. The Temple Of My Familiar’ was published in 1989. D. ‘ We Are The Ones We Have Been Waiting For’ in 2006. E. ‘Possessing the Secret of Joy’ was published in 1992. F. ‘Now Is The Time to Open Your Hearts’ was published in 2004. G. ‘Meridian’ was published in 1976. ^ fiction novels/books (source # 3) H. ‘The Same River Twice: Honoring The Difficult’ was published in 1996. I. ‘The Way Forward Is With a Broken Heart’ was published in 2000. J . ‘In Search of Our Mothers' Gardens: Womanist Prose’ was published in 1983. ^ nonfiction (source # 3) K. ‘Once: Poems’ was published in 1968. L. Revolutionary Petunias and Other Poems’ was published in 1973. M. ‘Goodnight, Willie Lee, I'll See You in the Morning’ was published in 1979. N. ‘Horses Make a Landscape Look More Beautiful’ was published in 1984. O. ‘Her Blue Body Everything We Know: Earthling Poems’ was published in 1991. P. ‘Absolute Trust in the Goodness of the Earth: New Poems’ was published in 2003. ^ poetry (source # 3) V. The Male Character A. She is often criticized for her portrayal of the black man being a violent and abusive figure, because this appearance was how black men were viewed by society, coming from a black women was critical. source # 1) B. After writing the color purple she was considered a black feminist because of how she showed the black male character of society . Some say that when she received the Pulitzer prize and the American Book award for â€Å"the color purple†, ‘that the award only proved that black women writers were being awarded for bashing black men. ’ (source # 4) C. She often demonstrates the struggle and constant down fall of Black women in society during the 1950-1990’s , through her novels and poems.And she makes a spiritual connection with God and her characters in almost all the books. (source # 3) D. Some of her stories such as, The Third Life of Grange Copeland, create controversy because of her recurring theme of the suffering of black women at the hands of men. (source # 3) E. Walker explains that the depiction of these stories is not to bash black males, its to show the strength of black females and how much expected failure they have overcome. (source # 5) VI. Influences and inspirations A.In her poem, Once (1968), she writes about her experiences in the civil rights movement and her visi t to Africa, including love and suicide. – after visiting Africa in 1964 , she struggled with an unwanted pregnancy. Upon deciding to have an abortion she battled with the thought of suicide, but she soon reclaimed her life. (source # 2) B. After the accident at age eight, Alice’s eyes were opened up to the true meaning of life and she noticed relationships and how to be patient, she expresses her learning about life through these stories. source # 1) C. Walker mentions that growing up a southern black girl, in a poor rural community, she possessed the benefit of double vision; her quote†¦. – â€Å"Not only is the [black southern writer] in a position to see his own world, and its close community†¦but he is capable of knowing, with remarkably silent accuracy, the people who make up the larger world that surrounds and suppresses his own. † (source # 3) D.A major theme of Alice Walker is the preservation of black culture, and her woman characters are important aspects in demonstrating hard-earned success. (source # 3) E. Alice recounted in, Our Mothers' Gardens, that she was inspired by Martin Luther King Jr. ‘s message that being a southern black meant â€Å"I †¦ had claim to the land of my birth. † (source # 3) F. She was also influenced by black writer Zora Neale Hurston, who'd wrote lively folk accounts of the thriving small, southern black community she grew up in. source # 3) VII. Alice Walker continues to write today and her legacy will live on for generations to come, as possibly the most inspirational black writer of our time. Alice’s books have two effects on people, either inspiring or a waste of time. But despite their opinion, her novels provide insight that most people would never learn in a lifetime. She even appreciates the constructive criticism from her readers, because it makes her a better writer.

The Essay Experts New Year’s Resolutions for 2018

The Essay Experts New Year’s Resolutions for 2018 New Years Resolutions seem to be getting a lot of flak this year. Pretty much everyone I talk to says they didn’t make any because 1) resolutions don’t work, and/or 2) if you’re continually improving yourself, January is no different than any other month. Nevertheless, I’m making some New Years Resolutions for 2018. I’m also checking in on the ones I made a year ago. I actually did pretty well on following through on my 2017 promises, so I’m intentionally bucking the â€Å"no-resolution† trend this year. Report on 2017 â€Å"Ressaylutions†: 1. Publish the 13th edition of How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile, updated with the new face of LinkedIn. Success! You can find the new edition right here. How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile continues to be a top 10 business writing resource for executives, professionals, business owners, and students. You’ll get 18 tips (plus 7 bonus tips) that teach you how to âÅ"” Improve your search rankings âÅ"” Impress visitors with an eye-catching photo and background image âÅ"” Build connections with etiquette and ease âÅ"” Showcase your strengths with an effective, unique LinkedIn Summary (examples included!) âÅ"” Utilize special sections to your advantage âÅ"” Leverage LinkedIn’s Jobs function âÅ"” Give and get persuasive recommendations †¦and more! Newly updated for 2018! âÅ"” Revised images and instructions throughout to match LinkedIns new redesign âÅ"” Mobile-specific instructions âÅ"” Special advice from a past recruiter âÅ"” Secret tip: Write headlines over 120 characters! (Mistake #1) âÅ"” How to connect without InMail (Mistake #5) âÅ"” How to find alumni connections (now that the Alumni function is gone) (Mistake #5) âÅ"” New best practices for the LinkedIn summary section (Mistake #7) âÅ"” The new face of LinkedIn Jobs (Mistake #15) âÅ"” The LinkedIn Students App (Appendix E) And that’s just some of the changes. I think you’ll love the new edition and intend for it to be the best, most up-to-date LinkedIn book available on line! 2. Publish a trade edition of How to Write a STELLAR Executive Resume Published! Check it out at Amazon Google Barnes Noble Kobo 3. Launch Writely, a Client Management Portal As reported in August, I completed this but then reversed the decision. Back to square one! 4. Find that editor. As reported in August, I look forward to bringing on two editors that I’ve already interviewed. Volume has returned to a level where I will need them! 5. Write a marketing plan – including SEO enhancements While I did not write a marketing plan, I did implement some new strategies, including my favorite: starting to wish my LinkedIn connections Happy Birthday! I think all contact is good contact, and it keeps The Essay Expert top of mind. I reached out to some past connections as well, and I sent out an announcement about an upcoming price increase. I believe all these steps increased brand awareness for The Essay Expert. Probably the most effective step I’ve taken is the new way I’m holding conversations with new clients. I’m taking more time and being more consistent in these conversations, and I think a greater sense of trust is resulting. 6. Explore the possibility of moving to the East Coast I traveled to New York and New Haven in May, and New York again in October. I’m excited to have found at least one yoga studio that I love – an essential staple for me anywhere I live. Ressaylutions for 2018: Create a KILLER LinkedIn portal – an online, subscription-based version of How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile. This is occurring to me as a huge project. Investigate marketing How to Write a KILLER LinkedIn Profile to educational institutions. Ideally, I’ll find the perfect person or resource to do this for me. Build my  business to the point where I need to use editors, and use them! Improve systems in ways that support both team members and clients. Further develop my management skills, especially skills in setting expectations and addressing breakdowns. Track my sales and editing time in a new way so I understand my personal income more. Continue exploring NYC and surrounding areas as a possible place to move in 2019. My next trip is coming up in just over a week! I like this list as it’s a good combination of concrete projects and personal growth initiatives. All doable with the right amount of dedication and focus. I’m excited for the year ahead! What’s in store for you in 2018? Please share in the comments. If one of your New Years Resolutions is to advance your career in 2018, contact The Essay Expert  for a free consultation on how we can best assist you!

Nickel and Dimed

Nickel and Dimed Barbara Ehrenreichs book, Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America, describes the experiences the author went through when she forfeited her good life and went undercover so as to see for herself how it feels to work for an hourly wage of $6 to $7. Instead of simply listening to the accounts of other individuals, she decided to travel to Florida, Maine, and Minnesota, with the intention of assuming the role of a minimum wage employee. Ehrenreich worked and lodged in every location for about a month. Although she was working full time, she found it hard to meet her needs adequately and she was often forced to do two jobs at a time to make ends meet. The author decided to go on this experiment with the intention of establishing whether the amount of money paid to low-wage workers is enough for their sustenance. Ehrenreich’s expose ´ has revealed so many things to me concerning the situation of the low-wage workers in America. Whereas the experiences that the author und erwent were captivating, I did not get the feeling that she really anticipated to achieve something in her tricky experiment. However, after getting her point of view from her personal experiences, the difference between the rich and the poor has become even more apparent to me.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Nickel and Dimed specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More To start her experiment, Ehrenreich decided to go to Key West, Florida, which was near her home to try to find an employment there (Ehrenreich, 2008). Luckily, she got recruited to work as a waitress in a diner-style restaurant and found an efficiency apartment thirty miles away from the city to live in. However, the payment she received from the job was hardly adequate to sustain her and pay for the next month’s rent. As a result, she opted for a second job at a local hotel to work as a maid. Interestingly, she was unable to cope with the two jobs. Ehrenreich then left the maid position after one day and the waitress position also became equally demanding. Therefore, she quitted the job even before the end of the month. After departing from Florida, Ehrenreich went to Portland, Maine, where she managed to get a job with The Maids, a residential housekeeping service, and she also worked as a dietary aide in a nursing home so as to make ends meet. The two jobs forced her to work for seven days a week and she managed to stick it out until the end of the month. She found that working with The Maids was both physically demanding and paying meager wages. In addition, she felt that the work was degrading to her. A notable experience she describes is when one of the maids got injured while performing her duties and although she unsuccessfully tried to thwart the normal operations at the residential housekeeping service, she managed to convince the management to give the injured maid a day off. Serving in the nursing home, the author found herself attending to the needs of all the patients in the whole Alzheimer’s section. And, she feared making any mistake that could cause more harm to her patients as she had little experience on the job. The third location chosen for the experiment was Minneapolis, Minnesota, where she found it more difficult both to get an employment opportunity and a reasonably priced apartment to stay in. It was hard for her to get an apartment in the city because the vacancy rate was less than one percent. Nonetheless, after spirited attempts, she was employed by Wal-Mart as a â€Å"softlines† worker and she found a rundown motel to stay in, which threatened her safety and proper sleep at night. Thus, to improve her conditions of living, she moved to a nicer hotel. The work at Wal-Mart was not only repetitive and monotonous, but also extremely low paying that made her to struggle in meeting her needs.Advertising Looking for term paper on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This made her to believe that the workers at the company are working themselves too hard compared to the meager wages they receive. Interestingly, when she was leaving every job in all the three locations, she never witnessed a dramatic response from the workers she revealed to that her main intention was to write a book about her experiences. The employees seemed to be caught up so much in their low paying jobs that none of them showed any interest in her candid reasons for vacating the positions. Reading the experiences that Ehrenreich went through surprised and shocked me, as well. Importantly, it made me change my perception about the individuals in America who survive on low-wage jobs. Although I had the opinion that individuals living in trailer apartments were finding it hard to make ends meet, I had not fully thought that they were living in deplorable conditions that even affording a trailer a partment would seem difficult. Worth mentioning, I also considered that individuals on low-wage job would be capable of meeting at least their basic needs such as adequate food and shelter. However, reading the book immediately opened my eyes concerning how much those on minimum wage work so hard to afford the basic items, not mentioning the luxuries. Nickel and Dimed reveals this problem through the experiences that the author went through in different locations in the United States. The astounding expose ´ that the author makes has changed my opinion regarding a number of social issues. I agree with the author’s claim that minimum wage employees represent the largest, most philanthropic category of the American workforce because of the many challenges that they have to tackle in order to survive. Notably, Ehrenreich’s argument has made me to realize that minimum wage workers in America are maybe one of the most ignored segments of the country’s workforce. Th e topic on how much an American worker should be paid at minimum is often a controversial one (Waltman, 2000). The issue often ignites debates in the social and political spheres. However, as Ehrenreich points out, few individuals are really interested in ways of improving the lives of the low-wage earners. When legislation is passed to increase the amount of minimum wage in the country, the government and others usually pay more attention on the response of the employers while disregarding the effects of this in the real lives of the recipients of the legislation.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Nickel and Dimed specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The book has succeeding in revealing this great deal of social discrimination that is still prevalent in the American society. Consequently, the course of low-wage earners is still severely hurt. Before reading the book, I had the perception that minimum wage jobs did n ot require any â€Å"skills† to perform. However, the explanation that Ehrenreich gives has made me to think otherwise. Ehrenreich, a journalist with a Ph.D. degree, discovered that manual labor was physically demanding, boring, humiliating, and needed incredible acts of resilience, focus, good and fast thinking, and accuracy to perform. She also found out that continuous and recurring movement leads to the risk of cumulative trauma disorder (CT). For one to deliver results as a minimum wage worker, one must be able to endure pain so as to hold a position in a market with constant returns. In addition, Ehrenreich points out the malpractices of the people in the management position who make the whole experience of low-wage earners to be even more dejected. They often disrupt the employees productivity and compel those they supervise to perform degrading and uninteresting duties. In the book, Ehrenreich details the problems and sufferings of the individuals who, either due to l ack of experience or other causes, have to commence their careers at the bottom by earning low-wages. Her explanation reveals that they find it hard to get by, and even more difficult to forge ways ahead. I would also expect it to be full of hardships and difficulties. However, I am not certain if the author expected it to be so difficult and I am also not certain if her experience was long enough to enable her make the assertions or if she did her best in her undercover investigations. Nonetheless, as pointed out earlier, many of the issues she has raised are factual. The thought provoking book, Nickel and Dimed, was well-written and it is worth reading for opening the eyes of the readers regarding minimum wage employment in America. Reference List Ehrenreich, B. (2008). Nickel and dimed: on (not) getting by in America. New York: Henry Holt Co. Waltman, J. L. (2000). The Politics of the minimum wage. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.Advertising Looking for term paper on american literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Animal Liberation Front (ALF) Background and Goals

Animal Liberation Front (ALF) Background and Goals Animal Liberation Front (ALF) has no firmly established date of origin. It was founded either in the late 1970s or early 1980s.  ALF maintains an association with PETA, (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). In the mid-1980s, PETA often reported to the press when anonymous ALF activists took animals from U.S. laboratories. ALF activists have also been closely associated with Stop Huntington Animal Cruelty (SHAC), a movement aimed at shutting down Huntingdon Life Sciences, a European animal testing company. Actions against HLS have included bombing property. The Animal Liberation Press Offices, which operate on several continents, issue statements on behalf of not only ALF, but also more militant groups such as the Animal Rights Militia, which emerged into public view in 1982 when it claimed responsibility for a letter bomb sent to former UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and several English legislators. Objective ALFs objective, in its own terms, is to end animal abuse. They do this by liberating animals from exploitative situations, such as in laboratories where they are used for experiments and causing financial damage to animal exploiters. According to the groups current website, ALFs mission is to effectively allocate resources (time and money) to end the property status of nonhuman animals. The objective of the mission is to abolish institutionalized animal exploitation because it assumes that animals are property. Tactics and  Organization According to the ALF, Because ALF actions may be against the law, activists work anonymously, either in small groups or individually, and do not have any centralized organization or coordination. Individuals or small groups take the initiative to act in the name of the ALF then report their activities to one of its national press offices. The organization has no leaders, nor can it truly be considered a network, since its various members/participants do not know each other, or even of each other. It calls itself a model of leaderless resistance. There is a certain amount of ambiguity about the role of violence for the group. ALF pledges its commitment to not harming either human or non-human animals, but its members have taken actions which can justifiably be considered as threatening violence against people. Origins and Context Concern for animal welfare has a history stretching back to the late 18th century. Historically, animal protectionists, as they were once known, focused on ensuring that animals were treated well, but from within a humanist framework that envisions humans as responsible for the earths other creatures. Beginning in the 1980s, there was a noticeable shift in this philosophy, toward an understanding that animals have autonomous rights. According to some, this movement was essentially an extension of the civil rights movement. Indeed, one of the participants in a 1984 break-in at the University of Pennsylvania to retrieve animals used in scientific experiments, said at the time that: We may seem like radicals to you. But we are like the abolitionists, who were regarded as radicals too. And we hope that 100 years from now people will look back on the way animals are treated now with the same horror as we do when we look back on the slave trade.(quoted in William Robbins Animal Rights: A Growing Movement in the U.S., New York Times, June 15, 1984). Animal rights activists have been becoming increasingly militant since the mid-1980s, and increasingly willing to threaten people, such s animal researchers and their families as well as corporate employees. The FBI named the ALF a domestic terrorist threat in 1991, and the Department of Homeland Security followed suit in January 2005. Notable Actions July 1984: ALF activists stole three cats, two dogs and eight pigeons from University of Pennsylvania laboratoriesThe ALF and the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) took responsibility for smashing Bank of New York windows and posting graffiti such as BNY Kills Puppies to protest the banks business with Huntingdon Life Sciences.2004: Construction of an Oxford University research lab intended to include animal experimentation was halted following repeated vandalizing at the construction site, and threats to shareholders, attributed to ALF2006: ALF claimed responsibility for leaving an incendiary device on UCLA researcher Lynn Fairbanks front porch for her work as a sadistic monkey killer.

Realistic representation of psychological concepts in the film A Essay

Realistic representation of psychological concepts in the film A Beautiful Mind - Essay Example The story of the film is devoted to what can be evaluated as a heroic life story of an outstanding mathematician John Forbes Nash, haunted by both his genius and manifestations of insanity so prominently coexisting in him. On this background, a careful viewer can discern in the film fine elements characteristic to several psychological concepts and theories, such as for instance a depiction on the concrete example of Nash of various symptoms related to a psychiatric condition of schizophrenia, the involvement of the films protagonist into social relationships network that often challenges his mental disorder, and the psychological processes associated with what is known as cognitive dissonance. The film "A Beautiful Mind" opens when John Forbes Nash (Russell Crowe) is struggling to come up with some original concept at Princeton. We can immediately see the sign of genius in him, but at the same time it is clearly visible that Nash is often weird, uneasy in terms of social interaction, and painfully competitive. In fact, even though John has friendly relationships with several students, his only faithful friend is his roommate Charles. After some time, the mathematician comes close to elaboration of an original, pioneering and promising approach to game theory, and his successful scientific future seems warranted. John obtains a position at MIT, and gets involved into a hush-hush governmental program aimed at code-breaking research. During his such a secretive occupation, Nash is dealing with William Parcher, a top-level governmental agent who attempts to employ Nashs talents for national security tasks. At MIT Nash gets acquainted with Alicia (Jennifer Connelly), a lovely and remarkable student. They marry eventually, but their happy life gets under the threat when John is diagnosed with schizophrenia and is apparently falling into insanity. In a psychiatric hospital Nash undergoes therapy through electroshock to get rid of his delusions, but he nevertheless finds it next to impossible to work or be a proper husband. Besides, as soon as he ceases to take his medication, the delusions come back. But despite all that, his wife Alicia provides a great support to him as he does not want to be again hospitalized, and with time John learns how to control his delusions. Finally, when John Nash is granted a Nobel Prize in economics he can be said to have gained the greatest victory of his life, but the one which he could hardly achieve without the love and help of Alicia. Psychological concept #1 Perhaps the most stunning display that the film provides is that of a debilitating condition of a person suffering from schizophrenia, a psychiatric term that is used to describe a mental disorder with various symptoms that in combination lead to changes in the reality perception and to consequent impairments in common social functions of an affected person. The very word

Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 7

Case - Essay Example Similarly, another female speaker from a falling company was given the chance to address the graduates. According to the author, this female speaker was given the opportunity just because the company she was working with was almost collapsing, which is a representation of women leadership (Kantor, par. 1-4). The entire graduation seemed like a comparison of the men and women achievements in the school as well as the working world. The author is trying to bring out the issue of women being labeled as failures both at school and at work. This is the reason she has given the example of the two women speakers at the graduation. From the entire story, the author has communicated the manner in which females are treated differently from their male counterparts. At one point, the reader is made to understand that the number of male students enrolling at the Harvard Business School is much higher than that of females. Also, the number of male professors is very high compared to that of female professors, a situation that would make some female lectures opt for a different environment. For instance, some of the school alumni such as Sheryl Sandberg would admit that the school was worse during their times. No one was allowed to talk about the things that take place within the school since everything was â€Å"dirty secret† (Kantor, par. 10-14). The issues that made a majority of the students as well as the alumnus to dislike the school were due to the differentiated treatment that was being given to the students. For instance, the school ranking was based on the level of student participation in class. How ever, the majority of the tutors being male would discriminate against the female students. This, on the other hand, would adversely affect the female students’ grades at the end of every semester and also at the end of their courses. The majority of the students, as well as

Occupational Health and Safety Administration Essay

Occupational Health and Safety Administration - Essay Example These questions aredescription of the value of the value of health management guidelines, the value of safety precautions, methods of educating employers on OSHA compliance, effects of incentives to management, risks that might emanate from inadequate management(Connors and Gena, 4). It is important to identify the value of health management and safety precautions in an organization. Employees within an organization have a right for the safeguarding of their health, and it is the duty of the employer to initiate measures that will ensure employees are protected from the health risks that emanate from their works. On this note therefore, observance of the values of health management in an organization is an important procedure of professionally creating awareness and methods of managing OSHA compliance within an organization.It is also important to analyze the efficient methods that OSHA experts can use in educating employers on OSHA regulations. This is because without their collabor ation, it is impossible to achieve the objective of OSHA regulations (Reich, 9). It is employers who implement the OSHA regulations, and it is they, who are charged in case they fail to implement these regulations. In developing my professional expertise in the awareness and methods of managing OSHA compliance in an organization, it is important therefore to know and understand the most efficient method of educating employers on the importance of OSHA regulations.It is also important to understand the types of risks that employees of an organization can face.

Produce a component drawing suitable for transfer onto a CAM system Essay

Produce a component drawing suitable for transfer onto a CAM system (Mechanical Engineering) - Essay Example in the industry because of several reasons including improved design quality, increased productivity, establishment of data base for manufacturing, creation of standards for design and doing away of inaccuracies brought about by hand-copying of several drafting as well as drawings’ inconsistency (Introduction to CAD, 2008). CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) refers to the effective employment of the computer technology for manufacturing planning and control. CAM is concerned with manufacturing engineering processes including planning and scheduling of manufacturing processes, machining operations, control of quality of production processes and products as well as Numerical Control (NC) part programming. Computer-aided manufacturing is usually integrated with Computer Aided Design in CAD/CAM systems. This allows movement of information from design section to product production planning with no need of entering the data manually on the part geometry(Introduction to CAD, 2008). CAM develops the information stored by CAD into information which is used as instructions for running and controlling production operations, machining, materials and equipment handling, product inspection and automatic testing. The rationale for CAD/CAM comes out to justify improvements based on technology as far as manufacturing is concerned. This approach grows as a result of the need to make improvements on quality, productivity and product competitiveness. Other major reasons include: Better quality of the produced goods, better communication, higher production level, manufacturing common database, lowered prototype costs of construction and quicker customers’ response(Introduction to CAD, 2008). The necessary hardware part for a CAD/CAM system includes components such as a digital computer, workstation, plotters and output put devices as well as storage devices. The system, in addition to this encompasses an interface communication which usually enables data transmission to other

Negative Decisions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Negative Decisions - Essay Example (Hoch, p. 26) The case with Barings Bank is one of the most vivid examples of how wrong decisions may affect a stable and seemingly reliable company. The theory and experience of decision-making state that the person should foresee all possible consequences of his actions in order to avoid possible catastrophe. It is evident that Nick Leeson omitted this regulation. He made a strategic error in his decision and this led to a collapse, which caused the bank experience trading losses that exceeded $1 billion. This accident happened in 1992, in the middle of July. It started with an error made by one young trader, working in Singapore office of the Barings Bank. This young specialist had to buy the contracts, but he sold these contracts instead, by mistake. Due to this error the bank had losses for about $30000, and the company had to cover these losses. Lesson decided to cover up this error. The question here is whether Leeson should have revealed this mistake to supervising managers or hided it. As it has been said above, he decided to hide it, wishing to help and support one of his employees. This was the first stage in a series of mistakes on many levels that resulted in collapse of the bank. What has started with an attempt to conceal employee's mistake, resulted in multiple attempts to hide his own mistakes in derivative market, and this deception together with many negative decisions led the bank to crash. As the experts comment similar situations, "How did a back office clerk in his 20s become responsible for bankrupting one of the world's oldest merchant banks The answer: many bad decisions" (Hoch, p. 40). It is evident that this manager cannot be fully responsible of what happened to company. His own mistakes that he tried to hide were evidently known to supervising managers, but these errors produced the same wrong decisions as he had once made, and supervising managers allowed him to act independently and provided him with the holes to slip through. It is known that Nick Leeson started his working career as the manager who was responsible for fixing the mistakes of other traders. These were the mistakes connected to calling out the orders to sell or buy. As a rule, these mistakes are usually noticed and fixed within a day and a night in special departments. Leeson had a capability to detail and scrupulous working, so this feature had helped him in getting this job three years before he made his fatal decision. Soon after he started working, he was sent to Jakarta branch to examine heaps of papers accumulated in one of the offices. Then in 1992 Nick Leeson was suggested a positionoif a manager responsible for running futures subsidiary in Singapore office of the Barings Bank. During a term of 3 years that passed after his appointment, the losses caused by his own trading mistakes exceeded $1 billion. He confessed he had deceived the Barings Bank and SIMEX (Singapore International Monetary Exchange). Leeson was arrested, and sentenced to 6.5 years of imprisonment. The fist question that comes to mind while observing this case is how this manager concealed his errors and deception for so long. In case his mistakes had revealed in time, this wouldn't have resulted in catastrophe. It is possible to define several strategic mistakes in the process of decision-making that led to collapse. Overwhelming emotions. It is known that supervising manag

Produce a component drawing suitable for transfer onto a CAM system Essay

Produce a component drawing suitable for transfer onto a CAM system (Mechanical Engineering) - Essay Example in the industry because of several reasons including improved design quality, increased productivity, establishment of data base for manufacturing, creation of standards for design and doing away of inaccuracies brought about by hand-copying of several drafting as well as drawings’ inconsistency (Introduction to CAD, 2008). CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) refers to the effective employment of the computer technology for manufacturing planning and control. CAM is concerned with manufacturing engineering processes including planning and scheduling of manufacturing processes, machining operations, control of quality of production processes and products as well as Numerical Control (NC) part programming. Computer-aided manufacturing is usually integrated with Computer Aided Design in CAD/CAM systems. This allows movement of information from design section to product production planning with no need of entering the data manually on the part geometry(Introduction to CAD, 2008). CAM develops the information stored by CAD into information which is used as instructions for running and controlling production operations, machining, materials and equipment handling, product inspection and automatic testing. The rationale for CAD/CAM comes out to justify improvements based on technology as far as manufacturing is concerned. This approach grows as a result of the need to make improvements on quality, productivity and product competitiveness. Other major reasons include: Better quality of the produced goods, better communication, higher production level, manufacturing common database, lowered prototype costs of construction and quicker customers’ response(Introduction to CAD, 2008). The necessary hardware part for a CAD/CAM system includes components such as a digital computer, workstation, plotters and output put devices as well as storage devices. The system, in addition to this encompasses an interface communication which usually enables data transmission to other

Poetry and society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Poetry and society - Essay Example It has the ability to remind the people about the past, present and future. In short, the ability of poems or poetry in touching the hearts and souls of the people is unquestionable. Since poetry has the ability to touch the souls or emotions of the people, it is often argued that poetry can be used effectively for emotional healing. Emotional problems in this world are growing day by day. Medicines and other methods of therapy have some limitations in addressing the emotional problems such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety of the people. Since poems or music has the ability to speak to the souls, it is believed that poetry or music therapy may help the people with mental problems to get out of the troubles. According to Bouchard, poetry is one of the mediums most conducive to personal, emotive expression. This paper analyses how poetry can be used effectively for emotional healing. The number of people, suffering from emotional problems is growing day by day. The major reason for the growing emotional problems in the society is the life style changes and the loss of morality and ethics in the society. Upcoming generation, especially the children and young adults are facing a lot of emotional problems in recent times. Richard Gold (Founder of Pongo volunteers) and his volunteers conducted a study among children and young adults in juvenile detention centers, homeless shelters, psychiatric hospitals, and other organizations, to know more about the ability of poetry in solving emotional problems. Gold and his team used a carefully constructed model to encourage written expression that will target those areas which are most affecting the youths’ circumstances (early childhood trauma, such as abuse, rape, addiction, death and violence). After this study, Gold has written a post on the Pongo site blog, entitled â€Å"Poetry Saved My Life†, which is giv en below: â€Å"Ive seen that lifes worst experiences can exist as strangers

The Music Industry Essay Example for Free

The Music Industry Essay In this essay I will be discussing the four main areas of the music industry; I hope to gain knowledge about them and how they connect to one another so I can better myself overall as a musician. Record Labels: Record Labels are brands that are responsible for marketing the music recordings and music videos of bands/artists; there are two types of record labels, major and independent. There are only 3 major record labels left which are Universal Music Group, Warner Music Group and Sony Music Group, a record label is classed major when it has more than 5% market share. Major Record Labels There are many pros to signing to a major record label and the most obvious and perhaps most important one is that these big companies have a lot of money, this means they will be spending more money promoting your record, which means a higher chance of sales and popularity. Having more cash available also means they will invest a lot in touring, recording and music videos which will all benefit your career in a band or as a solo artist. Although the pros of signing a major record deal sounds incredibly rewarding, there is a few downsides which may cause a band/artist to be put off. Firstly, signing to a major record company won’t always last as long as the artist wants it to; if your major label is paying a lot of money to promote you they will not keep you signed if you are not selling records to return the output of money back into their pockets. A lot of the time they will sign a lot of acts just to see what ones are popular and will make money, resulting in the unpopular acts being dropped. Furthermore, things like artist unfriendly deals which leave the artist earning a lot less money than the label and not having full creative control of material are all disadvantages which could leave an artist or band seeking a better deal from in an independent label. 1 Independent Record Labels An independent record label is a label not associated with the big three major labels, a lot of artists start their career on independent labels. One pro of an independent label is that they love your music; this means they will be working harder with you, this also means you will have close working  relationships with the label due to smaller staff and a smaller roster which means you can contact your label easier and ask them questions. Also independent labels have artist friendly deals, you will have more creative control and independent labels are unlikely to contract you to multi album deals. Independent labels also have a few cons and the main one being money, which was the main pro of a major label. With less money available this will mean you won’t have large recording budgets, huge promotion deals and things like tour support, you will have to support yourself financially which is why a lot of artists would prefer a major record deal. Along with a shortage of money, other cons of indie labels include size which means less purchasing power and also disorganisation. 2 Overall I believe the best type of record label depends on preference, if an artist is seeking fame and fortune a major label deal would be best for them as more money would be available to them and they would be promoted and better known. If an artist felt strongly about the music they wrote and wanted to have full creative control an independent label would be best for them. How do I get signed? If you want to get signed to a record label you can start by sending in your demo to the AR department and then things can advance from there if they like what they hear. Record labels have separate department that help find and sign artists which is AR, they help find artists by listening to demos, going to gigs and watching recordings of bands to find talent, they would contact the artist and tell them how they would develop them as an artist. Furthermore, they find the right songs for the artist, make sure they work with the right producer and find the right studio; AR are also the department that handles contract negotiations. As an AR person you must understand what music is current and what can become popular, this is an important job and you must have a good ear as this person bridges the gap between record labels and artists and can be the person responsible for signing the next big thing. If you want to get signed to a record label you can start by sending in your demo to th e AR department and then things can advance from there if they like what they hear. i What can record labels offer you? Recording studios are also another thing that comes with a signing a record  deal, perks of a recording studio includes top of the range equipment and rooms with excellent acoustics to give your band a better sound when recording, you will also have a well-trained sound engineer to mix and produce your song, however these can be expensive and leave you with less money for things like touring. I believe recording your music in a studio will also give it a better sound which means it will also be more likely to sell. Record labels will also help you distribute your material, Retail is selling your music by physical sales or through the internet, you can sell songs and albums for digital download over the internet on multiple platforms such as iTunes or amazon, once a song is bought a percentage goes to the retailer and the rest to the artist and label. Selling your music on CD is distributed slightly different, labels will discuss with the retailer how many copies they want to order and once an amount has been agreed the cd’s will be shipped then sold. Overall I believe selling your music for digital purchase is better as internet sales are becoming very popular as people can download songs straight to their phones, also you make less of a loss if your songs don’t sell on iTunes or amazon etc. as you haven’t had to pay for CD printing.ii Music Publishing: A music publisher or music publishing company is in charge of making sure songwriters and composers receive their royalty payments when their compositions are used commercially.3 They will also help distribute and promote music that is created, license songs to record companies and copyright songs and compositions, their job is to promote and protect songs and compositions. Finding songwriters and composers in a music publishing company is also handled by AR, songwriters and composers can be found on YouTube, Twitter, Facebook and other social media sites; furthermore there are traditional methods like going to gigs to find songwriters and composers. 4 Promotion One of the most important jobs to a music publisher is promoting songs, this means getting the songs to be used in ways that earn money. They can talk to music supervisors to get songs played in films, TV shows and advertisements which can bring in a lot of money due to synchronisation rights and royalties. 5 Publishers will have a network of contacts that they can  promote to and then negotiate a license with. They can also make deals with musicians that want to use songs their clients have written/composes. It is very important that a music publisher or music publishing company promotes well because getting your music heard and recognised can be the forefront to your success. Copyright management Copyright means protecting material and allowing composers to be paid for their work, if something is copyrighted it means the creators of the material are in charge of it and can decide who uses their work and what circumstances it is used in. In a song the musical work and lyrics are both protected, to copyright something it has to be original and not copied; it must be recorded on paper or on CD. It is important a music publisher copyrights their songwriters/composers material otherwise it can be copied by other people and they will not be able to prosecute in court without copyright. 6 Performing rights Performing rights are the right to perform songs in a public place; it is part of copyright law and means the composer/songwriter and publisher will be paid, the royalties would be split 50/50. Performance rights mean a group who are not copyright holders are performing a piece of music publicly, performances are considered public if they are in a public place such as a nightclub, restaurant or at a concert. This is another reason why it is important for a music publishing company to copyright their client’s music, so they can claim royalties and money can be made from their material. Live performance: Live performance includes things like gigs and festivals, I will be discussing some of the roles that make a live performance and how they work. Promoting a Live Performance The main thing that completes a live performance is people, without people turning up to your live performance you will fail to create an atmosphere and most importantly not make any money back from the high costs of renting a venue hiring staff etc. So to get people to come along to your event/performance you need to promote. Promoting techniques you can use  include printing off posters and posting them everywhere you can, ask small shops if you can put them in the windows or even stick them to lampposts. However you need a good eye catching poster otherwise it will go unnoticed. Other ways to promote include promoting your event on social networking like Facebook and Twitter, you can create an event and invite as many people as you like; people are likely to see this as a lot of people have their phones on them all the time and will receive a notification when invited7. Online and physical ways of promoting can both be effective when done right, but if you want a large amount of people to notice your event and consider coming you need to do both online and physical promotion. Setting up a live performance To set up for a live performance you need to start by gathering some equipment. It is advisable you go and take a look at the venue a few weeks before the show day so you can see what equipment needs to be brought along, things to look out for include seeing if the venue has a PA, if not you may want to hire or invest in one; if you are hosting the event at your own venue it is worth buying your own PA to save money in the long term. Other things include staging space, make sure there is ample floor space for the performers to stand and you may want to bring a stage/drum riser if there aren’t any there already. Lighting can also be important in bringing atmosphere to a performance. Finally, you will at least a handful of staff on the night such as security, stagehands and a sound engineer. 8When hosting an event you may want to choose for more expensive equipment whilst saving money on staff, good equipment will improve sound and experience meaning people will want to come aga in; but you can get away with hiring people for not much at all as people are happy to get into a free show and help. Health and safety Health and safety precautions at a live performance are incredibly important, start by making sure there is a person in charge of first aid as this is also the law; people are likely to get hurt in a crowd of people by tripping up or bumping into people. Secondly, when sorting and setting up electrical equipment you need to make sure wires are not across the stage in the air as this could cause a trip hazard for performers and also make sure there are no trip hazards in the crowd standing space also. Another precaution to take is making sure staging is secured properly; if heavy staging equipment is not put together correctly accidents could happen causing big injuries which could mean you not being able to host events again. A final thing to take into consideration is noise level, when hosting a live event you are granted a license with rules of decibel level and if you exceed this level you would not be granted another license so another live performance would not be possible. I believe taking all of these health and safety precautions is fundamental to looking after everyone at a venue and will mean things can run smoothly without any inconvenience. 9 Tour and event management An event manger means you will be in charge of a number of jobs, firstly you’ll need to find your venue that is suitable to your event; and then you need to book your acts. After you have sorted this you need to check health and safety is okay and then make sure the night runs smoothly. An event manager is an important role in making sure a live performance goes to plan, the audience may not notice the hard work of an event manager but if it wasn’t for them there would be no show. A tour manager is slightly different; they are in charge of booking venues as well as hotels and what crews are in charge of health and safety, security etc. I believe that tour and event management plays a huge part to live performance and makes things tick, without tour and event managers everything would be unorganised and would not go smoothly. Front of house and Backstage Starting with front of house, this includes a wide range of jobs such as door staff; these can be security or people that accept tickets. People at food stalls or bars are also included, these people are important as they can keep the audience refreshed with drinks and food. Front of house staff can be important as they are what the audience see so they need to be calm and relaxed so things run according to plan and not to distress anyone at the venue. Backstage staff covers a few more roles, they include the sound engineer who controls the levels and quality of the band’s sound to put on a good sounding performance for the crowd, secondly there are instrument technicians for drums, bass, guitar so if any instruments fail in any way they are there to fix it or provide a new instrument e.g. backup  guitar/bass. Other roles include a lighting technician to give the performance visual effect and also a pyro-technician who is in charge of any fireworks or fire during the performance. Backstage managers will make sure acts are ready to go on stage at the correct time; roadies are in charge of moving and packing equipment away for the end of the set or for the next act. Backstage staffs are just as important as the acts themselves, this job needs to be done effectively and communication is key otherwise things could fall apart very quickly. Performance rights When hosting a live performance you need to make sure you are licensed to play music, you must have the correct copyright licenses, having these is a legal requirement. PRS collects royalties for songwriters, publishers and composers and PPL collects royalties for performers and musicians. You also need public liability insurance, and if any DJ’s are performing they will need a ProDub licence; this is needed for when a DJ is transferring music from a vinyl, CD etc. to a digital format. If they do not have this license you may face fines or legal prosecution. Artist management Business and Tour managers Business managers are in charge of all the money to do with the artist, they are usually accountants that have experience with musicians, day to day managers can also take care of finances but they usually have a lot more things to do so it is helpful to have a business manager for this. A tour manager takes care of booking venues, hotels, flights and things like selecting a tour bus etc. Tour managers are important because they get the artist/band from one place to another and make sure things run smoothly, a good tour manager needs to be organised so the band makes it on time to gigs, interviews and recordings. Having managers can be very helpful to an artist; however they will need to be paid so it’s important to decide what mangers you definitely need. 10 Artist and managers rights In the music industry artist and managers rights must be abided by, otherwise you could be brought to court; artist rights include being paid their royalties due to copyright, these are usually songs played on the radio/television etc. Manager’s rights are slightly different they include  being paid fairly and that all contract terms are kept to, if they aren’t it means the manager can terminate the contract at any time. I believe it is very important managers and artists rights are abided by because you may end up in court if contract terms are breached. Sponsorship Sponsorship does not always mean getting free stuff from the company that is sponsoring you, it means when two businesses come together to benefit from the association of one another. Sponsorship deals can be gained by the artist’s manager, it can mean money is offered to an artist and in the return the artist will wear, promote the brand. This is a very good way for an artist to earn income; it also makes artists/bands noticed. Endorsement is slightly different as it means artists can use the companies gear, this is good as it opens the company to a lot of fans and allows the artist to use top of the range equipment. I think sponsorship deals are good as they benefit both parties and can allow a lot of income to the artist and company. Merchandise Merchandise can include clothing, CDs and stickers. The merchandise should include a creative logo that goes with the name of the band, stickers are useful as they can be stuck anywhere and promote your band. Merchandise can be sold after shows and also online which is useful if people cannot get to them at a show, selling merchandise is a great way to make money as people will pay high prices to own a t shirt with their favourite bands name and logo on it. It’s also a good promotion technique, if people are walking the streets with your band name on their t shirt soon your bands name will become familiar to people and they will tempted to listen to your music. However, you need to make sure your designs are effective and not offensive because bad merchandise may put people off of your music. Merchandising is a very popular and important way of earning money and getting your band noticed, I believe it is a very good way to help an artist/band’s success. In this essay I have talked about and explained the four areas of the music industry, I have gained knowledge which will benefit my career as a musician, with this knowledge I now have an understanding about various careers in the music industry also.

Muted group theory: Research

Muted group theory: Research Abstract The motivation behind this report is to research the muted group theory, for the purpose to spread the finding to students taking the level 200 communications paper, this theory may be used in the final exam for this paper so there is a large necessity for the finding to be correct. While it is hard to understand the interest in this feminist theory there is an underlying interest fact for both male and female students. The problem in this report is the misunderstanding on the theory, the name itself is misleading, giving a misconception that it has something to do with the physical inability to speak. The way this problem was solved was through a collection and evaluation of various books and articles related, n some cases mildly and others majorly, to the theory. The result from the research that was done was that, in short, the muted group theory is a mental problem where through the dominant group of a culture the mute group is forced into alliteration. This theory is important; it points out the obvious ideas about female cultures and explains reasons behind what they are, how they become that way and who makes it happen. Introduction The purpose of this report is to gain the knowledge of what the mute group theory is, who researched the theory, why they did, how it contributed to the way we communication and what is the future for this theory. The intended way in which this will be achieved is through researching the theorists findings and collectively reporting on them, in a way in which my audience will understand. The limitations of this report were mainly funding, to gain access the most of the theorists articles, paid logins were required, or the funding to buy books that arent readily accessible. Another limitation was the catalogue at the Whitireia library, while there were an abundance of feminist related books there was a limited amount related to this in particular theory. The ability to read an index, I found myself looking for a replacement book in the last few days when I realised that the one I was using had nothing to do with Kramarae. Lack of knowledge, towards the end of the time I had for the report I discovered that Kramarae had a different name for a period of her research. Lastly, time management was a major limitation. The methods used to research this theory were books from the library, articles from Proquest and articles researched from the internet. In this report you will find a literature review, the findings, Conclusion, a summary of points of information and a critique of the theory. Literature Review Two Books Belenky, M. F. (1986). Womens ways of knowing: the development of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York: Basic books. Kramarae is used in the introduction chapters as an example into the background of the study. In this section the author discussed the feelings of women not being served adequately on their needs as women, the idea that women find it harder to establish themselves in roles of authority, talking about the suggestion that women as often unheard or ignored in most situations even when they feel that they know something important that should be shared, along with the feeling of being ignored they feel they are being discouraged from practising any intellectual line of work that is typically male dominated as it is seen as being ‘unfeminine and unreachable with what women are suppose to be capable of. It is an unspoken idea amongst the male culture that women should e seen but not heard. Even now in the modern world, where things have supposably changed it is still relatively rare to find females in roles of authority. I found this book to have the third largest amount of detail on my theory from the books Whitireia library had to offer. The first being Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory the second being my text book. I was disappointed with the lack of direct mention of the mute group theory. I found that I had to read between the lines to gather anything helpful from this book. Not helpful, was the fact that in this small section of a chapter the author was using a multitude of examples from various theorists to explain herself. Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. The chapter of this book devoted to Cheris Kramarae opens with a background of her development of education and how she became interested wit this theory. Moving on to the first section ‘Proprietors of language this section discusses the idea that in a male dominated culture the language is developed by male without consideration of females (the dominate group develops the language without consideration of the mute ­Ã‚ ­ group). The next section is titled ‘women as a way males/dominate groups inconsideration of the female/muted groups forces the compression of the muted group to begin with, i.e. having no connection to the culture dominate norms pushes the group deeper into decline. The third is ‘a visiting scholar talks about the oppression of past female scholars and their research making the present research redundant and repetitive if it had been openly accessible. The next ‘Do we really want more control of technology discusses the possible idea that technology cold release the muted group by giving them the opportunity to be a part of the new language developed with the new culture the technology is producing, also the sceptical again this idea. The final chapter titled ‘Feminist theories of communication discusses the multiple other female theories, these are all directed solely towards female culture while most non-feminist theory doesnt take this into account and results in misleading and dangerous ideas in relation to womens experiences. I found that the majority of this chapter didnt directed related to mute group theory more about feminist theories in general and relating them quietly to the mute group theory. But the points that are discussed are interesting while only slightly topical. Being only written five years ago found it did appear rather outdated when talking about technology. Two Database Articles Cheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 423976331). This article is a response to an earlier article on the relationship between women and the computer industry The article points out that the percentage of women in this industry is declining but the is little know of why the original article was about Ruth Woodfield, Jane Margolis and Allan Fishers research into this mystery. They conclude with the reasoning of the culture of computing still being male dominated, there is still the potential though, for female to break through this. This article discusses the idea of genderless universe allowing a theoretical ‘reset on the idea on society in the virtual world this is plausible but in the physical it is impossible in regards to male superiors over employees, also many dominate group fear the idea of gender bending they do not want to be deceived or loss there power. This idea does not seem like it would conclude with the potential goal set foreword. Finally two points are pointed out that were missed from the initial article, there was no mention of race issues in obtaining degrees and secondly that the females that do pervade in this industry are stereotyped hostility with underserved labels. I found this article less than helpful in comparison to the other reading I collected, while it was written by the theorist herself there was little to no mention directly on the mute group theory, which I expected from the title. Although there are many points that I myself would relate easily to her theory. Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and Communication: Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 974623021) Kramarae explains examples about mute group theories mainly on the constraints of women due to the donate male group ‘belittling their intellectual property, and academic works, she explains about how language is male oriented and is subjective against women. She also talks about the relation of other cultures and races with the mute group theory. She then movies on to the history of muted women for the past 500 years and how when she first started working on her theory it was radical and topical, people were interested and fascinated but now this not so interesting, she puts this up to the fact that the world must be changing and fixing itself through technology, changing the definitions of the original male defined language with less discomfort in the words that are used commonly in society. After that she compares standpoint theory with mute group theories, both theories relate the different in gender perception to their differing experiences and affects of their views. Empathy towards others and trying to see others views could help solve many group problems. Mute group theories looks at groups while standpoint looks at the individual. Later she points out that by trying to use the group theory; results can easily turn into essentialism by trying to not miss a viewpoint of a group you can look over another. This article was written by Cheris Kramarae herself, talking directly about her very own theory, by my option I would say that makes the article very accurate. It was a Journal from Proquest. Two Internet Articles Baer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web site: http://www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Baer.htm This paper refers to both theorists Kramarae and Ardener (female and male), and describes there different approaches. Ardener seeing women as being constructed differently causing differences in the way they act. Defining muteness as being lower in status than the dominate group. Kramarae differs, defining muteness as the lack of power a group holds. She says that women a perceived as not only holds. She says that women a perceived as not only being less powerful, but also as a group use a different language than the dominant group. This language to men is harder to understand as it is not worth it. Muteness is a dominant-group created problem. The next section is a case study explaining a work situation where there are two males and four females. Where the two males and one of the females are higher positions and the other three females are there assistants. The female that is in a higher role is there through conversion to the male manners to gain their acceptances, by relation her assistant was also accepted by the males and they listened to both. The other two female assistants were treated as lesser valued workers, while they acted like females they were treated as well by their overheads, but their ideas in relation to the work were ignored or suppressed to gain the clients respect. The last section is the critique of the theory. The writer of this paper tends to agree with the proposed ideas with the muted group theory. Making points on her own evidence that for the 25 years Kramarae worked on muted group theory there was little change and nothing very big. Not much change in the way women are viewed between 1970s and 1990s. This paper was very relevant to the mute group theory, it compared the two theorists and gave a real life example, although it would have been more interesting if it was written by a male instead of another female. McLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners â€Å"Belief and the Problem of Women†. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~dm419397/mgres.htm This is a report on the Edwin Ardeners article ‘Belief and the problem with women. The author D.McLaughlin reports on this simular theorist to get a further view of the theory. Ardener and Kramarae share the same ideas of the theory, that women or the muted group are muted by the unfairness in their language from the male or dominate group. The differences found in the theorist are that Ardener splits his theory in two parts, technical and analytical. Technical, in which the point of man-made language falls, women that cannot communicate through this dialect are outcast as inarticulate. Analytical, in which women have to work harder in society to provable and must change to fit the male norms. This was researched through the observation of the Cameroon tribes, where females would have to participate in ‘rite s of passage rituals including seclusion, tests and rapes. Once past, they would be rewarded with respect and acceptance from the males. Ardeners; idea of women is that their ultimate goal is to achieve the respect of male to be on a ‘level playing field. The author concludes with the idea that this comparison is a symbolic look at our male dominated society in regards to the Cameroon tribes, that women everywhere must adjust their ways to achieve male acceptance. I found it interesting to read the male theorists take on the mute group theory, although I was disappointed by the fact that there definitions were incredibility simular, I did find that his comparison of the western culture and Cameroon tribes helped me understand the ideas that arise though his take on the theory. While the article was on a male theorist it was written by a female student, I would be more interested to get a purely male take on the theory. Findings Background Of Theorist Cheris Kramarae was born 1938 in South Dakota. Throughout the sixties and seventies she gain a B.S. degree in journalism and English, an M.S. degree in journalism and English and a Ph.D. in speech Communication, she then went on to teach in the speech Communication department at the University of Illinois. She then focused her work in the structure and use of language. Outline Of The Theory/key Issues To define muted group theory, the muted group must first be defined. The muted group are not technically mute, but though the language their culture supplies them with, are unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the non-muted or dominate group, the dominate group being the superior group of people in the culture that hold the power to the decisions that define the culture, they take little to no consideration to the non-dominant or muted groups in their culture when creating the norms, through which pushing the muted group further into recession. The muted group theory is the theory through which this group occurs, with the dominate groups invention of the language without the thought of the recessed group. The mute group differs from the dominant though their experiences and perceptions of these. Kramaraes theory is mainly feminist oriented, the mute group being woman and the dominant being men. Women are seen in society as lower beings compared to men, seldom involved in promotions in the workplace when there is another alternative along with examples like being tricked into being kept ‘in their place. Application Of The Theory With the rate technology is advancing Karamaraes vision for the next steep of her theory is the movement into online communication interaction. Her idea is that online a person can be genderless, making communication uncontrolled by the muted group theory to abolish the norm of sexes getting different treatment according to their significance in society. To be treated other than mindless helpers to the dominant group, men, women must change the way they are perceived by men to be accepted by men, when they are accepted they then gain the respect of men and are treated like they belong to the dominant group, the way this is done is that a woman must adopt the characteristics of a male, using their language the way it was intended by the dominant group and copying there mannerisms. With the advances through technology, the internet has provided us with the environment and means, though with Kramaraes vision of the need to lose the female mannerisms to be accepted. With the new networki ng tools web 2.0 provided us with we can know create a new unbiased driven characters with sites like second life and games like world of Facebook. The dominant group however despise this idea, they are terrified at the idea that the power could shift, even the smallest degree so that muted groups proposals could be seen as important, or even more important than the current dominant group, hating the idea of even the possibility that Kramarae could be right they would never accept that women have their own personal language, to the dominant group all they are concerned with is power and how to use it against people. Evaluation Of The Theory Kramarae believes that women are the westerns cultures muted group of our culture, they are the repressed group driven into illiteracy through the actions of the dominate male group of our culture, creating the language we are forced to use daily through the raw fact that there is now alternative means to communication. To be accepted and pull themselves out from the depths of the male created recession, they must gain the respect of males through copying them and gaining acceptance into their dominant group. Kramarae hopes that this could be over come through the use of technology, changing our culture from dominant and muted groups to one large genderless group. Conclusion The reason this theory is important in society is it raises issues about the female culture, how they are formed through their experiences, and since their experiences differ from males they shape differing norms then males and since males norms are society norms, females not fit in. Do you find yourself questioning the way youre seen in the world? Are you naturally part of the dominant culture that will end up in a highly respected job role? Or are you part of the muted group being ignored while others are getting the recognition that you deserve? Or you in the dominant group, after gaining the respect from you new pears by throwing away the traits of your natural muted group? Will the future bring the genderless society that Kramarae wants? Its hard to tell, but from the little mention of this theory since the 90s it seems that perhaps its already happening. A Summary Of Points Of Information Kramarae focused her work in the structure and use of language. The mute group are the non-dominant people in a culture, unable to articulate themselves to the extent of the dominant group. In western culture this is the female group. Dominant group are the power holders of the culture, making the decisions that define the culture. In the western culture this is the male group The dominant group defines the culture to their norms. The groups differ mainly upon experiences and how their perceptions are formed through these. Kramaraes theory can be applied to online communication interaction Online a person can be genderless Genderless meaning that the rules and norms of their group are abolished. To be accepted by the dominant group, members of the muted group adopt the ways of that group. The ways of the dominant group being the way they use the language and their mannerisms. The genderless communication is can be applied through networking sites that are now readily accessible to anyone, for example Facebook or second life. The dominant group are concerned with this idea and find objectionable the idea of losing the power that they currently can use against people. A Critique Of The Theory When I began my research of this theory I thought that it was totally different from what it actually was. I had no idea that I was expected to research a feminist theory of with I am morally against. But once I studied Kramaraes findings I found myself confused about my opinion upon the theory. I got angry at the idea of this theory, I am not a stereotypical female in theory, and I participate in many male typical hobbies and in general am a bit of a ‘tom boy. So when I read Kramaraes generalisations about the female culture it annoyed me that I was supposed to fit into this generalisation. I found myself ranting at people about how this theory was so close minded and did not take into account the people who do not fit into these categorises. Once I had finished researching my topic I was still annoyed but from a different position, I was now able to agree with the theory on many levels, it makes sense. The idea was females being put lower in importance in this culture and the males being the decision makings, its true as all the years ago when these norms were established women we discouraged entirely from pursuing any type of power oriented positions. Now days its changed, women can gain these powerful positions and that all fits into Kramaraes theory, to get to these positions women must change their ways to gain the respect from the dominant group, adopting the characteristics of the males. I dont want to accept it but I guess that my ‘tom boy mannerisms can fit into this as trying to gain the respect of the males that I associate myself with. This theory was discovered by a female, most of the articles I read on the theory were written by females, the article I read on male viewpoint on the theory was written by a female. I think it would have been much more interesting to have more male inputs into this theory. It is my opinion that a male student should have been assigned this theory to research. Glossary Of Terms Dominant: the state that exists when one person or group has power over another; her apparent dominance of her husband was really her attempt to make him pay attention to her Mute/ muted: the equaliser of the dominant group, with a dominant group there is always the muted group. When one person or group has power over another, the power is taken away from the muted group to retain balance. Group: any number of entities (members) considered as a unit Theory: A hypothesis that has withstood extensive testing by a variety of methods, and in which a higher degree of certainty may be placed. A theory is NEVER a fact, but instead is an attempt to explain one or more facts Culture: the attitudes and behaviour that are characteristic of a particular social group or organization Genderless: Without an associated gender Facebook: Facebook is a free-access social networking website that is operated and privately owned by Facebook, Inc Second life: is an online 3D interactive virtual reality program which resembles console video games such as Final Fantasy, but is almost entirely built and influenced by the people who use it References Belenky, M. F. (1986). Womens ways of knowing: the development of self, voice and mind. In Introduction (pp.4-17). New York: Basic books. Griffen, C. L., Foss, K. A., Foss, S. K. (2004). Readings in Feminist Rhetorical Theory. In Cheris Kramarae (pp. 8-44). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Cheris Kramarae. (2003). Women, Work and Computing / Unlocking the Clubhouse: Women in Computing. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. NWSA Journal, 15(2), 207-210. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 423976331). Cheris Kramarae. (2005). Muted Group Theory1 and Communication: Asking Dangerous Questions. Review of medium_being_reviewed title_of_work_reviewed_in_italics. Women and Language, 28(2), 55-61,72. Retrieved August 17, 2009, from Research Library. (Document ID: 974623021) Baer, J. (2009). Muted Group Theory by Cheris Kramarae. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from University of Colorado at Boulder web site: http://www.colorado.edu/Communication/meta-discourses/Papers/App_Papers/Baer.htm McLaughlin, D. (1999). Research report on Edwin Ardeners â€Å"Belief and the Problem of Women†. Retrieved August 18, 2009, from Oak University Website http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~dm419397/mgres.htm Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory (7th ed.). In Muted group theory of Cheris Kramarae (pp. 454-465). New York: McGraw Hill. Bibliography CMM. (2009). Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/theory/mutedgrp.html Cari Porter. (1999). Muted Group Theory. Retrieved August 4, 2009, from http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~cp300795/mg.htm Wikipedia. (2009). Muted group theory Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muted_group_theory WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=dominance WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=group WordNet Search 3.0. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=culture Define: second life Google Search. (2009). Retrieved September 2009, from http://www.google.co.nz/search?hl=enclient=firefox-arls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficialq=define%3A+second+lifebtnG=Searchmeta= TERMS AND DEFINITIONS FOR QUIZ.(2004).Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://blue.utb.edu/biology/oliva/terms_and_definitions_for_quiz_1.htm Facebook Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook Genderless – Wiktionary (2009). Retrieved September 11, 2009, from http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/genderless 20800537 2 / 15 Gestational diabetes: An analysis Gestational diabetes: An analysis Gestational diabetes: consequences for fetal programming of vascular disease in adulthood List of Abbreviations AGE Advanced Glycation End Products CNS- Central Nervous System EDHF- Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising Factor eNOS Endothelium derived Nitric Oxide ECM- Extra Cellular Matrix FFA Free Fatty Acids GAD 65- Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase GDM-Gestational Diabetes Mellitus HDL- High Density Lipoprotein HPL- Human Placental Lactogen IA-2 Insulinoma- Associated Antigen 2 ICA- Islet Cell Antibody IRS-1 Insulin Receptor Substrate 1 IUGR Intrauterine Growth Restriction LDL- Low Density Lipoprotein MODY- Maturity Onset Disease of the Young MRS- Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy NO Nitric Oxide OS- Oxidative Stress PKC- Protein Kinase C ROS Reactive Oxygen species TNF-ÃŽ ±- Tumour Necrosis Factor ÃŽ ± T1D Type 1 Diabetes T2D Type 2 Diabetes ZnT8 Zinc Transporter 5-HT Serotonin Abstract Gestational Diabetes is a condition present in the later stages of pregnancy where the mother has insulin resistance leading to glucose intolerance. The aetiology of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus is largely unknown but several theories include autoimmune destruction of the beta cells, monogenic mutations and insulin resistance. In pregnancy it is normal for there to be some levels of insulin resistance and it is thought that the products of the placenta contribute to the state of insulin resistance as GDM usually subsides after pregnancy. GDM in pregnancy can lead to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in the offspring such as hypertension and atherosclerosis. This is due to the increased levels of oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators present during pregnancy. The placenta is very important as it is able to control and buffer the amount of glucose that is delivered to the fetus but if this level is too high then it is out of the placentas control and the fetus may have increased rate of growth due to this extra glucose. The current focus of research in this area seems to be into finding ways to diagnosis GDM earlier in the pregnancy and to try and reduce the amounts of oxidative stress. Gestational diabetes: consequences for fetal programming of vascular disease in adulthood Introduction Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) occurs when there is a glucose intolerance that is first detected during pregnancy. It is a form of hyperglycaemia (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). The aetiology of the condition is unknown but there have been many suggestions as to the cause of it, including autoimmune destruction of the ÃŽ ² pancreatic cells and the possibility of a genetic predisposition to the condition. Hormones that are produced in pregnancy help contribute to the insulin resistant state which characterises diabetes. In recent years, there has been an increase in the cases of Obesity and this is a risk factor for both Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease. The intrauterine environment can affect fetal programming and development. This essay will look into how the placenta and its products can affect the insulin resistant state and how this resistance effects programming as well as the role of oxidative stress and inflammation in making the offspring more susceptible to cardi ovascular disease. Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) GDM is a state of insulin resistance which disturbs the intrauterine environment and can lead to accelerated fetal growth (Radaelli et al 2003).It effects approximately 7% of pregnant women with approximately 200,000 cases seen each year (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). The term GDM is applicable when the onset is during the second and third terms of the pregnancy, but it does not exclude the possibility that the insulin resistance was undiagnosed before the pregnancy. If this is the case and is found to occur in the earlier stages of pregnancy then the mother should be treated the same as mothers who are known to have diabetes before pregnancy (Metzger, Coustan 1998). There is a degree of insulin resistance in normal pregnancy which begins towards the middle of the pregnancy but during the later part of the second and the final trimester these can increase to levels of insulin resistance that are associated with type 2 diabetes (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance is when the tissues do not produce a response to insulin due to problems with the secretion of insulin or where the tissues are desensitised to insulin and therefore lack the ability to produce a response (Catalano et al 2003). In a normal pregnancy, the mother changes her metabolism to allow a constant supply of nutrients to reach the fetus to support its rapid growth. Among these nutrients is glucose, which is the main energy source used by the fetus. During the later stages of pregnancy the mother becomes hypoglycaemic and although there is increased gluconeogenesis, the hypoglycaemia still occurs because there is a high rate of transport of glucose to the fetus (Herrera 2000 cited in Herrera and Ortega 2008). GDM can have effects that impact the development of the fetus such as hypoglycaemia and macrosomia, which is an increase in body weight and has the possibility of leading to problems when giving birth, such as shoulder dystocia (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). During the second trimester of pregnancy there is peripheral insulin resistance but there is also the possibility that hepatic insulin sensitivity is altered in pregnancy, although few studies confirm this. By the end of the pregnanc y the levels of insulin that are circulating are thought to be double those at the start (Redman 2001). Insulin Resistance Insulin resistance in GDM can occur in two forms. The first is where it develops in late pregnancy and it has been postulated that there is a post-receptor mechanism that may influence the insulin signalling pathway which leads to a reduced glucose uptake. The second form is where there is already a degree of resistance before the pregnancy but the changes that occur in normal pregnancy aggravate this (Metznger et al 2007). The insulin resistance that develops in pregnancy is much needed to allow the flow of nutrients, from the mother, directly to the fetus to allow for growth (Radaelli 2003). Increased insulin resistance leads to an increase in insulin secretion by the ÃŽ ² pancreatic cells (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). The insulin resistance is thought to be caused by increased adiposity and as the insulin resistance usually stops after pregnancy this suggests that there is a possibility that the products of the placenta are a potential cause of the resistance. During the course of the pregnancy the actual changes in glucose levels are very small. It would be assumed that the glucose levels would rise due to the increased insulin resistance but the pancreatic ÃŽ ² cells increase their secretion of insulin to maintain homeostatic glucose levels (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). GDM occurs because there is an increased demand for insulin which under normal circumstances can be met unless there are problems with the secretion of insulin leading to the development of hyperglycaemia. The majority of mothers who develop GDM have been discovered to have a degree of insulin resistance before they became pregnant. Therefore, with the insulin resistance that occurs in normal pregnancy it can be said that GDM occurs with a greater insulin resistance than normally present in gestation (Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). Insulin resistance causes a decreased uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver as well as a decreased production of hepatic glucose. (Catalano et al 2003). One suggestion for insulin resistance looks into the possible role of the mitochondria. Studies using Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) have shown that in normal offspring of parents with type 2 diabetes, there is an increased amount of intramyocellular lipid. This has been shown to cause a reduced function in mitochondria which suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction may play a part in insulin resistance (Petersen et al 2004 cited in Morino et al 2005). It has been suggested that this increase in intramyocellular lipid activates a serine kinase cascade which causes an increase in the Insulin Substrate Receptor 1 (IRS-1), which inhibits insulin receptor phosphorylation on tyrosine sites. This can cause a decrease in the effects and utilisation of glucose. One study showed that in the insulin resistant offspring the mitochondrial density was reduced by just over a third to that of a normal offspring. This suggests that offspring who are insulin resistant may inherit a condition th at causes a reduction in rate oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria (Griffin et al 2009 cited in Morino et al 2005). Detection of GDM Diagnosis of GDM helps to identify pregnancies that are at risk of fetal morbidity as well as obesity and glucose intolerance in the offspring (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). GDM is hard to diagnose as it is asymptomatic. Normal diabetes could be diagnosed by glycosuria but in pregnancy the renal threshold to glucose is lowered so that glycosuria doesnt give a true representation of hyperglycaemia (Redman 2001). There are several risk factors of GDM which can be classified into three groups and help in the screening process. Low risk factors include women who are younger than 25, normal weight at conception, no known family members with diabetes and no history of glucose intolerance. High risk factors include obesity of the mother, diabetes in close relatives, a history of glucose intolerance, current glycosuria and previous pregnancies with GDM (Metzger and Coustan 1998 Chapter 25). Causes of Diabetes There are several theories as to why diabetes occurs and this has been thought to be similar to the underlying mechanisms that cause gestational diabetes. Diabetes is a result of pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction which can present in three main ways: autoimmune, a genetic cause and on top of already present insulin resistance (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). Autoimmune diabetes accounts for approximately 5-10% of all diabetic cases (American Diabetes Association 2010). There are circulating antibodies to the ÃŽ ² cells of the Islet of Langerhans. In GDM, there are a small number of women who have with these antibodies present in their circulation. It is thought that these cases present with GDM due to problems with insulin secretion caused by destruction of the Islets by the autoantibodies (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). This form is similar to type 1 diabetes. The Islet Cell Autoantibodies (ICA) have been shown to have four major molecular targets: Insulin, Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD 65), Insulinoma-associated antigen-2 (IA-2) and Zinc Transporter 8 (ZnT8) (Tree 2010). Monogenic diabetes has 2 general forms, one where there are mutations in autosomes and the other where there are mutations in the DNA of mitochondria. The first form is commonly referred to as Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY). In both cases onset tends to be at a young age and the patient doesnt present with insulin resistance or obesity (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). Mutations that cause MODY have been found in some women with GDM and commonly occur in genes coding for glucokinase, hepatocyte nuclear factor and insulin promoter factor, MODY is associated with beta cell dysfunction (Weng et al 2002). Chronic insulin resistance with beta-cell dysfunction seems to be the most common cause of GDM. As mentioned before there is an increase in insulin resistance in normal pregnancy but if this develops with background insulin resistance then there is an even greater insulin resistance which can lead to GDM. An established suggestion is that women who are unable to increase their secretion of insulin to cope with the insulin resistance developed in late pregnancy are more susceptible to developing GDM (Buchanan and Xiang 2005). However there could be various environmental processes that are involved in the underlying pathophysiology of GDM. The products of the placenta may also have a role in increasing or decreasing insulin resistance and these will be discussed later. Placental Function The placenta is an organ that has many roles during the development of the fetus. One of these functions is that it acts as a barrier to separate the maternal and fetal surfaces such that the syncytiotrophoblast surface exposes the placenta to the maternal circulation and the endothelium is exposed to the fetal circulation. This position between the two circulations means that the placenta is influenced by molecules from both circulatory systems, including cytokines, hormones and growth factors. The placenta produces molecules which can separately affect the maternal and fetal circulation and it expresses a large number of cytokines including leptin, resistin and tumour necrosis factor. However it has been discovered that these molecules are also produced by adipocytes. All molecules that are going from the mother to the fetus have to cross the placenta. Here they are either modified, for example lipids or like glucose, they are metabolised for placental purposes (Desoye et al 2008). The placenta plays an important role in fetal growth and the regulation of pregnancy (Giachini 2008). The placenta acts to sustain normal homeostatic levels and to carry out the functions of the vital organs. It also provides an immunological defence to the fetus and allows the exchange of molecules vital to its development (Jansson and Taylor 2007). Placental Development Approximately 4-5 days after conception, the process of cleavage causes rapid cell divisions and one of the groups of cells to form are called trophoblast cells. Further developmental processes form the blastocyte which is surrounded by an outer layer of the trophoblast cells. As the pregnancy progresses, the trophoblast cells develop into the placenta while the inner parts of the blastocyte form the embryo and umbilical cord (Huppertz 2008). The blastocyte implants itself onto the epithelium of the uterus where it differentiates into a syncitiotrophoblast which is able to implant itself in the epithelium leading to it being embedded into the decidual part of the uterus (Huppertz 2008). After the attachment of the blastocyte, the trophoblast layer divides very quickly and changes into 2 layers; the inner cytotrophoblastic layer and the outer syncytiotrophoblastic mass (Gude et al 2004).The whole implantation process takes 12 days to complete and after this the fetus is fully embedded into the endometrial layer (Huppertz 2008). The chorionic plate is the surface of the placenta that faces the fetus and this is where the umbilical cord inserts. The basal plate is the surface that faces the mother which contains many types of cells including immune cells such as macrophages and killer cells to carry out the placentas immunological function. The maternal basal plate and the fetal chorionic plate converge to form the smooth chorion which is composed of three layers (Huppertz 2008). When the trophopblast invades the endothelium there is a remodelling of the uterine spinal arteries which is necessary to ensure that the fetus and the placenta receive an adequate blood and nutrient supply and is able to remove any waste materials. This direct supply of blood and nutrients to the placenta can define it as being haemochorial villous organ (Gude et al 2004). After the rapid divisions of the trophoblast and development into 2 layers there are two pathways that can occur, the villous and extravillious pathways. The extravillious pathway results in the trophoblast being able to invade into the decidua and cause the remodelling of the uterine arteries to increase blood supply to the placento-fetal unit. The villious pathway has a transportation function as well as having endocrine and protective functions (Gude et al 2004). Normal Placentation Placentation involves the structure and function of the placenta. The process of placentation is helped by the composition and arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the endometrium. Studies on rats induced with diabetes provided results that showed that diabetes has an effect on the distribution of the ECM molecules. This study by Giachini et al illustrates that Types I and III collagen as well as other molecules, such as proteoglycan molecules decorin and biglycan were distributed throughout normal and diabetic placentas. It was shown that diabetes affects the expression of fibronectin and an increase in deposition of fibronectin may cause changes to the ECM structure which could affect the transfer of molecules from the mother to the fetus. One way in which changes in the ECM can be overcome is to test blood glucose levels frequently during the pregnancy and if kept in normal ranges this can dramatically decrease the prevalence of diseases and disorders present in the fe tus (Giachini et al 2008). As the pregnancy progresses the size of the placenta increases which also means an increase in the amount of products that the placenta produces therefore increasing in the insulin resistance (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). This is because the net effect of the products of the placenta is to increase insulin resistance. The increase in size of the placenta means that it needs an increased blood supply. Failure of the mother to increase its blood supply to the placenta can lead to placental insuffiency which if exacerbated can be attributed to be a cause of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). This growth restriction is more related to poor maternal nutrition rather than to a cause of GDM. GDM have been associated with an increased fetal and placental weight (Jansson and Taylor 2007). One of the reasons why GDM and increased insulin resistance affects the fetus is that while glucose can cross the placenta, insulin is unable to. This means that the fetal pancreas has to compensate by producing more insulin to prevent high blood glucose levels. The fetal pancreas is capable of doing this and the liver responds to the higher levels of insulin by increasing its production of glucose (Schillan-Koliopoulos and Guadagno 2006). Offspring who have an increase in birth weight have been shown to be at risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes later in life. The main risk factor for this is poor transfer of nutrients via the placenta (Jansson and Taylor 2007). How dramatic these changes are depends on how good the control of blood glucose levels have been during the development of the placenta, if any treatment has been received and if there were any periods of away from normal glucose levels (Desoye 2006). How does diabetes affect Placentation? Diabetic insults at the beginning of the pregnancy can have long last effects of the placenta. One of the roles of the placenta is that it is able to buffer excess maternal glucose which can help to keep the fetal glucose levels within range However if the insult lasts longer than the placenta is able to compensate for then excessive fetal growth may occur (Desoye Mouzon 2007). In diabetes there is endothelial dysfunction which can lead to vascular disease. The endothelial cells help to control the vascular tone of the smooth muscle lining the vasculature. They do this by producing substances that help to vasodilate the smooth muscle including Nitric Oxide, Prostacyclin and Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarising Factor (EDHF). There have been several studies to suggest different mechanisms of how diabetes affects the endothelium including impaired release of these vasodilating molecules, faults with signal transduction and increased release of constricting mediators of the endothelium. The dysfunction of the endothelium in diabetes is thought to be caused by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) as well as increased oxidative stress, non-enzymatic glycation and an increased activation of the polyol pathway (De Vries et al 2000).The main reason why these effects occur is thought to be due the activation of the protein kinase C pathway and the increased oxidative stress. This can cause early damage to the development of vascular vessels (Roberts and Raspollini 2008). These mechanisms will be discussed later. The effect of hormones produced in pregnancy Pregnancy causes changes in the circulating hormones and cytokines which can all have different effects on insulin resistance and this may help explain the mechanism underlying the resistance that is found in pregnancy and in GDM. Cytokines produced in pregnancy, such as TNF-ÃŽ ±, Adiponectin and Leptin have been found to cause an increase in the insulin resistance (Gao et al 2008). In early pregnancy, the levels of oestrogen and progesterone rise but no net effect is seen as the two have antagonistic effects. Oestrogen increases the binding of insulin to its receptor whereas progesterone reduces the ability of insulin to bind (Ryan and Enns 1988). Cortisol levels in pregnancy increase so that by the end of the pregnancy the levels are three times that of what they were at the beginning (Gibson and Tulchinski 1980 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10). Studies have shown that with increased amounts of cortisol there was a decrease in insulin sensitivity causing insulin resistance (Rizza et al 1982 cited in Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). During pregnancy the levels of prolactin increase up to ten times the normal amount (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). Studies have shown that in a culture of pancreatic beta cells, prolactin can cause an increase in levels of secreted insulin (Sorenson et al 1993 cited in Yogev et al 2008 Chapter 10). However, high levels of prolactin are not seen to be a pathological cause of GDM (Yogev et al 2008 chapter 10). Human placental lactogen (HPL) is a hormone, and its levels rise during the second trimester of pregnancy. This causes a decrease in the phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS1) which can lead to significant insulin resistance (Ryan and Enns 2008 cited Yogev et al 2008 ch 10). Leptin is associated with obesity and concentrations of leptin have been shown to be related to the concentration of insulin in the plasma. In pregnancy the leptin levels increase dramatically. During pregnancy the mother uses her fat stores to support fetal growth and it is thought that the leptin levels increase with the mobilisation of these fat stores. Leptin levels relate to the body mass of the individual (Sattar et al 1998). Placental Leptin is the same in structure and charge to the one produced by adipose tissue (Ashworth et al 2000). One study showed that high leptin concentrations in the umbilical cord increased the likelihood of developing fetal macrosomia (Wiznitzer et al 2000). It is also thought that leptin effects insulin sensitivity by effecting glucose metabolism in both skeletal muscle and in hepatocytes. Rats that received an external source of leptin were found to have an increase in gluconeogenesis which accounted for the majority of hepatic glucose production ( Rossetti et al 1997). In GDM there is a greater secretion of TNF-alpha in response to glucose. TNF-alpha functions to regulate metabolism of glucose and lipids as well as being involved in insulin resistance. Many studies suggest that TNF-alpha is involved in the progression to GDM. They found that an increase in glucose cause the placenta and adipose tissue to increase production of TNF-alpha in some cases up to 4 times more than non-diabetic pregnant(Coughlan et al 2001). One study showed that the increases in the levels of TNF-alpha during pregnancy increased consistently with increases in body weight (Catalano et al cited in Yogev et al 2008). Adiponectin is a protein derived from adipose tissue and its function is to regulate insulin resistance and maintains levels of glucose. During pregnancy it has been found that its levels drop and could therefore lead to the increase insulin resistance found in GDM (Gao, Yang, Zao 2008). Adiponectin has also been found to decrease the secretion of TNF-alpha which as stated above can lead to insulin resistance (Hotamisligil 1999 cited in Yogev et al Chapter 10 2008). Adiponectin may cause increased insulin sensitivity as its concentration decreases throughout the gestational period (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Resistin is a protein that is produced by adipose tissue and is thought to be involved in insulin resistance in diabetes and is associated with obesity (Steppan and Lazar 2002) In pregnancy, resistin is secreted by the placenta and this secretion reaches its peak by the last trimester (Yura et al cited in Megia et al 2008). Studies show that TNF-alpha is an important factor in insulin resistance during pregnancy and with inputs from leptin and cortisol there is altered glucose metabolism whereas inputs from oestrogen, progesterone and prolactin had little significant effects (Kirwan and Mouzon 2002). There are many hormones produced during pregnancy, mainly by the placenta and adipose tissue that have varying affects but with the overall impact being insulin resistance. Inflammation in Diabetes There are genes in the placenta which regulate reorganisation of the endothelium and inflammatory responses and in GDM these were found to be altered. The increase in leptin receptors suggests that in the placenta this can cause proinflammatory responses (Radaelli 2003). One of the current theories is that the abnormal metabolic environment in GDM can lead to increased production of cytokines and inflammatory mediators. Molecules such as TNF-alpha, Resistin and Leptin increase during pregnancy and these increases in these inflammatory mediators produce metabolic changes by increasing insulin resistance (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Leptin and TNF-alpha activate phospholipase A2 which are a family of eicosanoid precursors that go on to produce essential fatty acids such as w3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Desoye Mouzon 2007). There has been a recent investigation which found that with increased adiposity at birth there has been an increase in w3 fatty acids in the placenta (Verastehpour et al 2005 cited Desoye and Mouzon 2007). As stated before, the placenta produces cytokines but it is also a site of action of the cytokines. It is the location of the receptors for these cytokines will influence if the cytokines act on the mother, the placenta or the fetus. With cytokines there is very little transfer across the placenta from mother to fetus and the origin of the cytokines in the fetus can be from either the placenta or from the fetus itself (Desoye and Mouzon 2007). Fetal Programming Many studies have highlighted the fact that events that occur while the fetus is developing can alter its developmental pathway and have adverse outcomes in later life. Fetal programming describes how the environment can affect certain developmental events of which the effects are permanent and can affect processes such as metabolism and the organisms physiology. Women with GDM have an increased risk of the fetus developing macrosomia (Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The main factor that effects the growth of the fetus is the maternal environment and there is a strong association with the weight and height of the mother and the growth of the fetus such that mothers who are heavier and taller will produce heavy babies. (Love and Kinch 1965 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The placenta and fetal programming The placenta is very important to the developmental processes of the fetus as it is able to change the quantity of signals and nutrients that the fetus receives. Deviation from normal would alter the fetal programming, thus making it more susceptible to disease in later life. Pregnancies that are complicated by GDM have excessive oxidative and nitrate stress which has been found to change the activity of certain proteins. Oxidative and nitrate stress alter the placentas function and may cause changes in the fetal programming. Nutrient transfer depends largely on the normal development of the vasculature to allow blood flow and this can be affected by GDM which can cause a decrease in the flow of substrates and is a mechanism in which fetal programming can be affected (Myatt 2006). Fetal programming involves a large amount of development plasticity and interruptions to this development may cause abnormalities in the development of certain cells which may progress to structural differences in organ development (Gluckman and Hanson 2004 cited in Jansson and Powell 2008 ref 16). Effects to the fetus exposed to GDM If a fetus is exposed to a diabetic environment during pregnancy then there can be certain long term effects. These effects can be classified into three groups; Anthropometric, Metabolic or Vascular and Neurological or Psychological. Anthropometric changes are concerned with the rates of growth for both height and weight and in a diabetic environment these can be excessive leading to macrosomia and obesity in later life. Metabolic and vascular changes that occur are abnormal glucose tolerance which can eventually lead to diabetes mellitus. Finally the neurological and psychological changes that can occur are usually minor but development of psychological and intellect can sometimes be deficient (Dabelea and Pettitt 2008). Potential problems that may arise with the fetus from an exposure to maternal diabetes include abnormal organ mass, altered angiogenesis and increased levels of fetal insulin (Fetita 2006). It has also been found that if there is an increase in weight during pregnancy then there is usually a higher birth weight of the fetus (Humphreys 1954 cited in Catalano 2008 Chapter 11). The developing fetus cannot synthesise glucose and is dependent on the mother to produce it where it is transported to the fetus via facilitated diffusion through the placenta (Aerts et al 1996 cited in Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008). The result of decreased insulin sensitivity is that there is more glucose available to the developing fetus which can lead to a greater birth weight (Mello, Parretti and Hod 2008). Using animal models, it has been shown that exposure to high levels of glucose in utero can lead a diminished number of nephrons in the offspring (Amri et al 1999 cited in Fetita 2006 ref 68). This is important as nephrogenesis only occurs in the fetus and stops after birth (Gomez, Norwood 1999). It has been shown that a reduction in the numbers of nephron may affect the rate of progression of renal disease in adults due to an inability to secrete sodium. This may later develop into salt-sensitive hypertension (Brenner et al 1988). The mechanisms of reduced organ mass, high levels of fetal insulin and defects in angiogenesis may help explain how the fetus programs abnormal glucose tolerance in adulthood as a result of exposure to GDM (Fetita 2006). Transmission of diabetes from mother to offspring Exposure to gestational diabetes mellitus increases the risk of the fetus developing abnormal glucose tolerance which may develop into type 2 diabetes. (Fetita et al 2006). The association between greater incidences of the offspring having diabetes with a mother with GDM is greater than what would be predicted that could be passed on by maternal genetics (McLean et al 2006). One study showed that the phenotype for GDM/T2D was more common in daughters of mothers who were diabetic rather than daughters